The Underworld of Oregon Caves National Monument

The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Underworld of Oregon Caves National Monument, by Roger Jacob Cantor This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The Underworld of Oregon Caves National Monument Author: Roger Jacob Cantor Release Date: April 12, 2019 [EBook #59262] Language: English Character set encoding: UTF-8 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OREGON CAVES *** Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net The Underworld of Oregon Caves National Monument _by_ ROGER J. CONTOR Published by Crater Lake Natural History Association [Illustration: NATIONAL PARK SERVICE · Department of the Interior] Produced in cooperation with the National Park Service Copyright 1963 by Crater Lake Natural History Association Printed in U.S.A. © _CRAFT PRINTERS, INC 1205 Klamath Avenue Klamath Falls, Oregon 97601_ About the Author Roger J. Contor attended the University of Idaho and Montana State College, concentrating in the fields of zoology, botany, forestry, and big game management. His association with the National Park Service began as a seasonal employee in 1949 in Yellowstone where he served intermittently in various capacities into 1955. Later that year, he joined the permanent staff of the National Park Service as a park ranger, serving in Yellowstone, Rocky Mountain, and Bryce Canyon National Parks. In 1960, Mr. Contor became management assistant for Oregon Caves National Monument, where he remained until early 1962. He then returned to Rocky Mountain National Park, also as a management assistant. He is a member of The Wildlife Society and Phi Beta Kappa and has authored wildlife articles for _National Parks Magazine_, _Field and Stream_, _Outdoor Life_, _Wyoming Wildlife_ and _Denver Post_. [Illustration: _CAVE TOUR_] _ENTRANCE_ _TREE ROOT_ _RIVER STYX BRIDGE_ _WHALE_ _DRY ROOM_ _WIGWAM_ _110 ft. EXIT_ _BANANA ROOM_ _NIAGARA_ _KINGS PALACE_ _GRAND COLUMN_ _CHAPEL_ _RIMSTONE_ _PARADISE LOST_ _GHOST ROOM_ _EXIT TUNNEL_ CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 HOW OREGON CAVES WERE FORMED 3 The Raw Material—Rock 3 Underground Erosion 7 Decoration 14 The Cave’s Age 24 Other Cave Features 25 LIFE IN THE CAVES 27 Plant Life 29 THE FUTURE 30 HUMAN HISTORY 30 CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION 31 GLOSSARY OF CAVE TERMS 34 SUGGESTED READINGS 36 RULES & REGULATIONS 37 ADMINISTRATION 37 [Illustration: Paradise Lost] INTRODUCTION Three tired men unsaddled their horses where the mountain stream disappeared into the ground. They had fought their way 15 miles over wild, rugged mountains since leaving Williams Valley at dawn. Yet rest was far from their minds. Hurriedly they stuck tallow candles into lanterns made from tin cans, untied a lariat from a saddle, then walked down the valley. They stopped where the stream, now larger, reappeared from a shadowy crevice under a cliff. “This must be it,” said one of them eagerly, “just like Davidson said.” And with mixed feelings of excitement, fear, and the overwhelming grip of adventure, they followed flickering candlelight into the dark opening. Tales of persons lost for days in other caves were fresh in their minds, so they uncoiled a ball of string as they went. Later they could follow it back out. Soon they knew the Davidson story was true, more than true. Crawling from one chamber to another, they found a fairyland of weird grottoes and exquisite stone formations—pillars and spires, drapes, frozen waterfalls and grotesque forms—in shapes and sizes beyond their imaginations. Some they named from resemblance to familiar objects. At others they could only stare in awe and wonder _how can it be?_ Using the rope in steep places, they probed upward into another level of caverns where they were thrilled to find even more elaborate formations. At one place they wrote their names and the date, July 11, 1879. Here and there they saw evidence left by the few others who had entered the cave in the five years since it was discovered by their neighbor, Elijah Davidson. On and on they explored, returning to the entrance only when their last candle was growing short. Outside, stars lighted a midnight sky. Exhausted, happy, they vowed to return, then fell into bedrolls. Thus early visitors responded to the lure of Oregon Caves: to see the unseen and to know the unknown. Today, thousands of people enjoy the caves under less demanding circumstances. Yet the joy of personal discovery endures. For each visitor about to enter the cave, the thrill of learning something new and interesting about the earth beneath us is born anew. Throughout the world, caves loom large in the scope of history. Early man used them as dwelling and fortifications. Fugitives hid in them and thieves used them to cache their loot. Others have found them fine places to grow mushrooms. During the War of 1812 and the Civil War, Americans mined certain caves for saltpetre which was desperately needed to make gunpowder. Much of our knowledge of long extinct mammals has been gleaned from perfectly preserved remains, and even prehistoric drawings, uncovered by cave-probing scientists. To most of us, however, the greatest value of caves is the delight of seeing the strange beauties wrought by nature through countless centuries. And from this comes the challenge to understand the imperceptibly slow, relentless forces which produce them. This booklet sketches the processes which form, alter and eventually destroy caves. It is an attempt to share present knowledge with those who visit Oregon Caves National Monument. Before going on, let us define the word _cave_ as we consider it here. True caves are formed in soluble rock—limestone, marble, gypsum or dolomite. They usually contain some redeposited mineral in the form of stalactites, etc. As most caves occur in limestone, the term _limestone cave_ is often used to describe any true cave, even though it may actually occur in dolomite or marble. The cave-forming process will be basically the same for either type of soluble rock. We exclude from this definition mines, lava tubes, ice caves, and sandstone depressions such as those used by cliff-dwellers in the Southwest. While they are “holes in the ground,” they are formed in different ways than are the limestone type caves, and therefore are not usually referred to in geological discussions of caves. HOW OREGON CAVES WERE FORMED _The Raw Material—Rock_ If we could turn back some 180 million years into geologic time, we would find the North American continent a much different place. This was the Triassic Period. Early dinosaurs thrived in primitive forests over much of the United States. The area around southwestern Oregon was not yet part of the continent; it was a shallow arm of the sea. Smoldering volcanoes jutted out as cone-shaped islands or poured forth fumes and lava from the distant mainland. During quieter centuries the age-old process of life and death went on within the sea waters. Fish, clams, coral—even tiny one-celled creatures too small to be seen—extracted a mineral called calcium carbonate from the water. With it they built bones, shells and skeletons. When these animals died, their hard parts settled to the ocean bottom. Gradually, layers of calcium carbonate were built up. At the same time certain chemical functions of ocean plants extracted carbon dioxide from the water and caused still more calcium carbonate to precipitate and add to the sediments. The layers deepened. Eventually the weight of overlying sediments and the ocean above compressed them into a rock called limestone. In different parts of the sea, and under varied conditions, other ocean sediments were deposited. Near the shore, wave-swept sand accumulated and eventually became sandstone. Fine silt and clay carried to the sea by rivers settled in bluish layers which were to become shale. Near rocky headlands, course gravel deposits became cemented into a hard mass called conglomerate. This steady formation of sedimentary layers was periodically interrupted by volcanic activity. Heavy clouds of volcanic ash and fragments settled into the sea. Molten lava poured into shallow bays or welled up from subsurface volcanoes to mix with calcium carbonate muds. When volcanism subsided, the seas went back to the quiet deposition of limestone. Today at Oregon Caves we find evidence of this interbedding of sedimentary and volcanic materials. An example of such interbedding can be seen above the parking area near the Chateau. [Illustration: Marble outcrop] Thus mixed deposits of volcanic and ocean sediments continued to collect for several million years. Apparently this steady transfer of material from one part of the earth’s crust to another created a crustal imbalance. The edge of the continent was under a strain. Then, like an accordion, a tremendous folding of the lands along the Pacific Coast occurred. The floor of the sea was lifted above the ocean’s surface to form a new coast line in this vicinity. Violent stresses in the earth’s crust created intense heat and pressure which changed, or metamorphosed, the rocks. Shales were altered to slate. Sandstone became quartzite. Limestone became the marble so important to Oregon Caves. Even the volcanic materials were altered considerably from their original form. The resultant geological belt composed of inter-bedded layers of slate, quartzite, marble, and metamorphosed volcanics is known as the Applegate Group. After the uplift, there was a long period of crustal stability. The folded mountains were eroded away and the area became a flattened plain near sea level. As a result, its streams were sluggish and meandered slowly to the ocean. Then, in various stages, the plain was uplifted in another period of crustal adjustments which produced a flat-topped plateau, so to speak, known as the ancient Klamath Peneplane. This restored the vigor of the stream erosion, which helped at times by glacier sculpture, dissected the plateau into the mountains we know today. The Siskiyou Range surrounding Oregon Caves National Monument is part of the Klamath Mountain System. Let us focus on one of the ancient marble layers of the Applegate Group, for this is the rock strata in which Oregon Caves were formed. It is actually a narrow, tilted belt, varying in thickness up to 400 feet. It dips eastward into the earth at an angle of about 60° and can be followed in a southwest-northeast direction for about 4 miles along the west shoulder of Mt. Elijah (see illustrations on page 4). Examination of the marble layers inside the exit tunnel or the outcrop at the beginning of Cliff Nature Trail reveals many fractures caused by the stresses of upheaval. Some are vertical cracks, but there are also many cross fractures at varying angles. [Illustration: Oregon Caves marble—8 inches wide] When tested for chemical composition, Oregon Caves marble samples have averaged 93 percent pure calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). Its bluish color is derived from the remaining percentage of impurities. Without these, it would be white. A good example of nearly pure calcium carbonate is the white chalk used on blackboards. Without this belt of soluble marble, and without the fractures within it, natural processes could not have produced the “Marble Halls of Oregon.” It is the foundation, the framework, and the raw material of the caves. _Underground Erosion_ The first requirement in the genesis of Oregon Caves—the right kind of rock—was met. Next came the erosive agent which was to carve it into caverns. This was the flow of underground water. The present rainfall in this area averages 50 inches a year. During the many thousands of years the caves were forming, the climate may have varied from wetter to drier many times, but it is safe to assume this has always been an area of relatively heavy precipitation. The steep, mountainous terrain and deep-cut valleys of southwestern Oregon are characteristic of aggressive stream erosion that goes hand-in-hand with a healthy supply of rainfall. Some of the rain evaporates and returns to the air. Some of it soon runs into streams and is carried rapidly to the ocean. The rest of it seeps into the ground where it is delayed for a time in its inevitable return to the sea. Under the force of gravity, it trickles downward rather steeply through joints and cracks in the rocks, or seeps between particles of sand, gravel, or clay. Below the ground surface it joins a zone of saturation, or _phreatic zone_. [Illustration: _GROUND WATER_] RAIN FALL } _Vadose zone: water moves from surface to water table (vertically)_ —_Water table_ } _Phreatic zone: total saturation, water moves slowly and nearly (horizontally)_ Here cracks, pores, and all spaces within the rock are completely filled with water. There are no airspaces. Water movement within the phreatic zone is comparatively slow, varying from a few inches a year to a few feet a day, depending upon the permeability of the rock structure. And the movement is usually horizontal, following the contours of the land in the same direction as surface streams. Eventually this water will find its way back to the surface at a lower elevation where it usually emerges as a spring. It is phreatic water which feeds the mountain streams and rivers many weeks or months after the last rainfall. It might also be pumped from a well for human use. A large portion of the earth’s population depends upon well water from these great underground reservoirs. How deep does phreatic water exist? This depends upon the porosity of the rock, or its ability to contain water. Most mines that penetrate many hundreds of feet encounter little water at great depths. Pressure of the overlying rocks is so great that open spaces capable of holding water cannot exist. So the earth’s crust contains available well water only in restricted zones not far from the surface. The top of the zone of saturation is called the _water table_. It is here that the most rapid flow of phreatic water occurs, for the joints and interspaces are wider nearest the surface. Between the water table and the surface is the _vadose zone_, in which the spaces are partly filled with water and partly filled with air. (See illustrations on page 7). Vadose water content varies greatly with weather conditions. As rainfall is scant in southwest Oregon during the summer, visitors find the caves relatively dry at that time. In the winter, however, the passages will be veritably “raining” vadose water within a few days after snow or rain. The water table itself is more stable, but varies somewhat from winter to summer, or during extended periods of unusually wet or dry seasons. Its lowest possible level is ultimately controlled by the elevation of the largest nearby surface stream or lake, which acts as a base level. When the streams and lakes are lowered by erosion, the water table of a given locality keeps pace by slowly sinking until eventually it lies scarcely above sea level. [Illustration: Solution Rills in Ghost Room ceiling] [Illustration: Crack widened by solution—Watson’s Grotto] Rain falling on the mountains above the cave seeps into the surface cover of vegetation and humus. Here it absorbs carbon dioxide released from the process of organic decay. Seeping further through the vadose zone and down to the water table, this water carries many times the normal amount of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere. In fact, it becomes acid. For water (H₂O) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) unite to form a mild solution of _carbonic acid_ (H₂CO₃). In this manner, phreatic water is constantly charged with mild acids. Not the kind that harm us, of course. The fountain water by the chalet, and probably that in your home, is actually mild carbonic acid. So is bottled pop. [Illustration: ] _SOLUTION_ RAIN + CARBON DIOXIDE = MILD CARBONIC ACID MOLECULES (H₂O) (CO₂) (H₂CO₃) CARBONIC ACID + CALCIUM = CALCIUM BICARBONATE SOLUTION CARBONATE MOLECULES FROM MARBLE STRATA (H₂CO₃) (CaCO₃) (CaH₂(CO₃)₂) _DEPOSITION_ CALCIUM CARBON DIOXIDE, FOR EACH CARBON DIOXIDE MOLECULE BICARBONATE CALCIUM CARBONATE ESCAPING INTO CAVE AIR, AN REACHING CAVE EQUIVALENT MOLECULE OF CALCIUM AIR CARBONATE MUST BE REDEPOSITED AS SOLID DRIPSTONE, FLOWSTONE, ETC. It was thus that phreatic water, charged with soil acids, percolated century after century through cracks in the marble. The acids ate away at all exposed rock surfaces—sideward, downward, and upward. (The solution rills in the original Ghost Room ceiling reveal the upward dissolving of water-filled cavities, see illustration page 9). To fully understand this, we must recall that the marble is 93 percent _calcium carbonate_ (CaCO₃). To dissolve it, carbonic acid mixes with the calcium carbonate to form an unstable liquid compound called _calcium bicarbonate_, (CaH₂(CO₃)₂). The removal of solid calcium carbonate in a liquid is the key cave forming process and is called _solution_ (see illustration page 10). In Watson’s Grotto we find several examples of early crack-widening by phreatic solution (see illustration page 9). The enlarged cracks allowed faster movement of water against an increased surface area, and a subsequent increase in solution activity. Partitions between them fell apart and were dissolved. A series of water-filled passages evolved deep underground. Their pattern and orientation followed the pre-cave network of joints and cracks in the original strata. Gradually the openings were further enlarged into the cave system we know today. There is more to it than that, of course. You may ask, “Why aren’t there caves continuously throughout the belt of marble? The joints and cracks are everywhere. And certainly all the marble near the surface has been subjected to ground water action at some time or another. Why are Oregon Caves limited to one particular part of the marble belt?” The answer to this involves several considerations. To begin with, we do find small cavities and solution cracks throughout the exposed marble. So there has been varying degrees of solution activity nearly everywhere, although not sufficient to produce caverns comparable to Oregon Caves. Secondly, we must reconsider the mineralized water, calcium bicarbonate. We called it an _unstable_ compound, meaning it will alter readily with slight changes in conditions. Once the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in the water has united with an equivalent amount of calcium carbonate (marble), the solution is saturated. No more marble can be dissolved until additional carbon dioxide is absorbed by the water. If the solution loses some of its carbon dioxide into the air, then an equivalent amount of calcium carbonate must be redeposited as solid stone. The balance can be delicate. In an underground pool of mineralized water, _solution_ may be going on at one end of the pool and _deposition_ at the other. So a state of chemical balance tends to develop in normal phreatic drift through the marble. Water saturated with minerals might easily move through many hundreds of feet of marble strata without further enlarging the openings. Instead, it might even deposit some of the dissolved minerals, filling small cracks and veins, possibly even blocking its own passage during dry cycles when phreatic flow is at a low ebb. The “dry” room in the cave is an example of vein filling. Clay, gravel, and other surface sediments can also be washed into the openings, plugging them up and halting further solution for a time. All these factors lead toward a stabilization of the solution process. Openings and small passages continue to be formed, yet normal phreatic movement at Oregon Caves seems to lack the force for large scale cave sculpture. This opens the door to our third consideration; we know the greatest amount of solution occurs in the water table zone. Therefore, to gain the impetus needed to carve out a cave system, some local condition must have _increased the water table flow_ in the immediate vicinity of Oregon Caves. The solution process was magnified as larger quantities of freshly acidic phreatic waters were channeled into a restricted zone. Surging on, they scoured through the marble, dissolving larger volumes of calcium carbonate and sweeping it away. The early solution pattern of enlarged cracks had set the stage for the onset of this swift phreatic erosion. But some geologically sudden event was necessary to trigger the forces which completed the act. We do not know exactly what the triggering action was. We know that the water table either received a _sudden increase in supply_ from surface drainage, or found a _larger or lower outlet_ downslope which tapped phreatic water over a widespread zone and channeled it through a localized area. There are several possibilities. 1. A perched water table may have been held in the cave zone by a lower and impervious layer of rock. This barrier may have been suddenly cut through by erosion, as if the plug were pulled in a bathtub. The perched water would now pass _through_ the barrier, rather than over it, evacuating parts of the former phreatic zone, and inducing surface streams to channel underground through the same route. With such a subterranean diversion of water from a higher to a lower drainage pattern, the water table flow would increase considerably. A cave-forming condition would exist. Several small streams lose their identity and sink into the ground a few hundred yards above the caves. Doubtless, they join the water table inside the caverns to emerge at the entrance as the River Styx (called Cave Creek outside). Possibly they aided in the early stages of cave formation in a manner described above. 2. It is difficult to imagine what the surface topography was like when the cave was forming, yet we know it hasn’t always been the same. The mountains were higher. The streams occupied higher positions in the valleys. The ridges lay in a somewhat different pattern. Now and then stream piracy, or drainage rearrangement, took place when a rapidly eroding stream cut away the ridge separating it from a less active stream. Suddenly the slower stream was diverted into the drainage system of its captor. Both surface and phreatic waters of the aggressive drainage were increased. The flow at the water table speeded up in response. If stream piracy occurred in the drainage overlying the caves, it might have played an important part in cave carving. 3. Nor can we omit the conditions that occurred here during periods of glaciation. Shifting masses of ice and glacial debris characteristically cause damming and rechanneling of water in minor stream valleys. The temporary results are similar to stream piracy. Coupled with this is the great volume of water which drains from melting glaciers. Evidence of partial glaciation in the Siskiyou Mountains lends serious consideration to its effect on early cave development. The whole process might have involved all three of the above situations in varying degrees, for a “geologically sudden” event may take several thousand years. Several distinct levels of cave erosion indicate that the water table moved along at a certain level for a time, then rapidly dropped to a lower course where it was stable for another extended period. This was repeated until it now stands near the level of the River Styx. Successively, the caverns at higher levels were drained and left empty. So as your tour climbs from the cave entrance to the highly developed sections near the Ghost Room, you encounter galleries that are progressively older. The first room inside the entrance, Watson’s Grotto, is the best example we have of a cavern “recently” drained. A word about the River Styx. Above it in several places you can see very smooth walls left by the familiar erosive action of a stream. (See illustration page 14). Most of the cave walls show the more pitted, concave surface left by the acidic dissolving action of phreatic water. The water which produced the main cave system moved much slower than the River Styx, and over a wider area. The stream as we see it did not produce the cave. Rather, the caverns, when drained, left a free flowing course for ground water to channel into. The only true underground streams occur in caves. They are a by-product of the cave-forming process. [Illustration: Smooth-walled erosion of River Styx] _Decoration_ Surface erosion continued to tear away at the mountains. Streams cut their valleys deeper. In response, the water table gradually sank below the level of the caverns and they, in turn, were drained. Air entered the rooms. The basic excavation process was completed except for a few minor changes: In some places, vadose water continued to dissolve away portions of the cave ceilings into dome shapes. In other rooms previously drained, water re-flooded certain portions during wet cycles. And some rooms were filled with clay and gravel brought in from the surface, then washed clean again in later stages. Most important is the entrance of air, which ushered in the second major stage in cave formation. The unadorned grottoes were now to be decorated. Nature, through the process of _deposition_, next created the eerie beauty which delights today’s cave visitors. In fact the process continues even now, for Oregon Caves are “live” caves, meaning they are still being decorated by natural deposition. The weak carbonic acid in vadose water kept eating away the roof marble above the caves. Reaching the caverns, drops of vadose water evaporated into the air and left their load of calcium carbonate as thin layers of solid mineral. The amount left by each drop was infinitesimal, yet millions of drops eventually left thick deposits coated on the walls, ceilings and floors of the cave. The crusty white deposits in the Beehive Room are fine examples of deposition by _evaporation_. They were left there in much the same way as the coating in the bottom of a teakettle or steam iron. However, evaporation is important only near the surface. Deeper inside Oregon Caves the relative humidity averages 98 percent. Evaporation here is almost non-existent. Instead, _loss of carbon dioxide_ becomes the chief agent of deposition. We have learned that vadose water contains 25 to 90 times the normal amount of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere. Much of it, of course, unites with calcium carbonate to form calcium bicarbonate solution. When this mineralized water reaches the caverns, large quantities of carbon dioxide are able to escape into the air due to the difference in carbon dioxide amounts in the water and air. The chemical balance is upset. For each molecule of escaping carbon dioxide, an equivalent molecule of solid mineral is deposited (see illustrations page 10). An interesting side effect of the loss of carbon dioxide is experienced by the cave visitor. Although cave air is constantly replenished by outside air through natural exchange, it has a rather high carbon dioxide content due to release of this gas by vadose waters. This partly explains the heavy breathing you find necessary inside the cave, because the nerve centers which control our breathing are stimulated by a high percentage of carbon dioxide in the air we breathe. It also explains the odd “peroxide” odor many people notice when they reach the exit. The odor is oxygen. We notice it because our senses have become adjusted to slightly lower oxygen percentages inside the cave. [Illustration: Cave deposits in Joaquin Miller’s Chapel] [Illustration: Drapery in Ghost Room] Cave deposits are collectively termed _speleothems_. Their variety is infinite: Those left by dripping water are called _dripstone_, and take on two basic forms—if they hang down from the ceiling they are called _Stalactites_, if they grow up from the floor they are _stalagmites_. The two may join together to form a column. Where the water drips rapidly and the loss of carbon dioxide is slow, stalagmite growth is favored because little deposition can take place on the ceiling. If the drip rate is slow and loss of carbon dioxide is rapid, stalactite formation is favored. [Illustration: Formations on page 16] Contrasted with dripstone is _flowstone_—smooth layered deposits left along walls and floors by flowing water. In Joaquin Miller’s Chapel, flowstone deposits are many inches thick. (See illustration on page 16). A close look at the structure of dripstone and flowstone reveals six-sided crystals called _calcite_, which is merely the crystalline form of calcium carbonate. (See illustration on page 19). Banded crystal layers in cave deposits are often called alabaster, or cave onyx. These can be easily seen at the “wishing post.” Other shapes and forms accrue. Flowstone forming on backsloping walls tends to produce graceful sheets called _drapery_. (See illustration on page 17). Reddish bands may develop in drapery where iron oxide is imbedded with the calcite. Contrasted with the pure white layers of calcium carbonate, this gives the appearance of _bacon_. Good examples of “bacon” can be seen in the Ghost Room. Most shapes and forms of dripstone and flowstone are occasionally duplicated by freezing water. Stalactites form on the edges of roofs, stalagmites form on the sidewalk beneath them, etc. But one of several cave formations which can’t be thus copied is the _soda straw_ (see illustration page 20). Deposition begins as a ring of calcium carbonate around a water drop. The ring has the unique feature of being a single crystal. As more drops leave their deposits, the ringed crystals form one on the other to create a tube. The water continues to seep through the inside of the tube, eventually producing the fragile, crystalline pipe with the obvious name. The diameter of a soda straw is apparently determined by the specific gravity and surface tension of water, for they are all nearly the same diameter, about one-quarter inch. In a cave in western Australia one soda straw has reached a length of 20 feet, 6 inches, yet is still only one-quarter inch in diameter. If the drip rate decreases, the tip of the soda straw may sometimes seal itself closed. [Illustration: Calcite crystals in layer of flowstone, 8 inches high.] [Illustration: ] Some speleothems apparently defy gravity. Now and then internal hydrostatic pressure causes secondary formations to project out from others in unusual directions. These are _helictites_ (see illustration on page 21). A related form is _popcorn_ (see illustration on page 22), the mat of small nodules which coat the “beehive” and other objects in the cave. Also called “cave coral,” popcorn can form under water or along wet walls in response to air currents. [Illustration: Helictite formed on soda straw] Soft, fibrous mats of calcium carbonate deposited near the surface at Oregon Caves are termed _moonmilk_. In time moonmilk may harden into popcorn mats. Its manner of formation is not fully understood. [Illustration: Popcorn in Adam’s Tomb] [Illustration: Rimstone] At the “Devil’s Washboard,” and at the foot of Paradise Lost, we find still another type of speleothem—_rimstone_—which forms in pools of water. Agitated by dripping or flowing water, some of the carbon dioxide in the pool escapes. The resultant deposition of mineral takes place on irregularities in the bottom of the pool, or creates stone wavelets where the pool spills over. Ridges and dams subsequently build up, often constricting the pool surface (see illustration on page 22). Another type of rimstone, or _cave ice_, develops when flowstone builds up around the edge of a pool and gradually closes across it. The pool may be completely sealed over, just like a pond in winter, except that “cave ice” can never melt. Cave students are often confused by another deposition found in the form of thin _blades_ jutting out of the wall (see illustration below). They have a woven, crystalline texture. Prior to removal by solution, some of the marble cracks were filled with calcium carbonate. Being less soluble than marble, the sheets of calcite crystals remain for a time after the surrounding rock is dissolved away. [Illustration: Blade formation] So far we have discussed cave features—_speleothems_—created by deposition of mineral from the solid to liquid, and back to solid state. But certain objects in the caves are simply what remains of a piece of marble after some of it is dissolved away. These are _speleogens_, cave features created by the dissolving of mineral (see illustration page 24 ). They can be striking, but primarily it is the _speleothems_ which make Oregon Caves a thing of wonder and beauty. The zenith of such spectacular development as seen at Paradise Lost leaves little doubt of this. We have followed the mineral calcium carbonate through many forms: from sea creatures to ocean mud, to limestone and then marble, next to a liquid solution called calcium bicarbonate, and lastly as calcite crystals in cave formations. The size, shape and variety of cave deposits are determined by many factors which seem to prevent any two being exactly alike. Changes in temperature, relative humidity, available carbon dioxide, amounts of vadose water, air circulation, surface tension, permeability of roof rock, vegetation above the cave, bacteria action, and the amount and kind of impurities in vadose water may all combine to vary the nature of cave formations. [Illustration: Detail in Paradise Lost] [Illustration: Speleogen above River Styx] _The Cave’s Age_ The many variables make it difficult to accurately estimate the age of cave deposits. We have no way of determining past conditions which have influenced the rate of development. Oh, we know the formations are many thousands of years old, beyond that we can only guess. Some crude examples of known age are the tiny, one-half-inch stalactites formed in the exit tunnel since it was completed some 38 years ago (see illustration below). Bathed in warm, dry air from the outside, they have probably developed much faster than those inside the main cave. Other active formations deep in the cave show very little visible depositing over names written on them by early explorers in the 1880’s. So the true secret of the age of the formations must rest with the cave itself. Perhaps this is best. [Illustration: Stalactites formed since exit tunnel was completed in 1933] _Other Cave Features_ An obvious feature you may see in Neptune’s Grotto is the brown lacework on the walls. They are lines of clay. Molecular attraction causes the clay particles to cling together into what we call _clay worms_. (See illustrations on page 27). Where does the clay come from? Some of it may be washed in from the ground above. The rest of it is the remnant of marble solution. Oregon Caves marble is 93 percent calcium carbonate. The remaining 7 percent is non-soluble clay and remains in the cave after the calcium carbonate is carried away in fluid state. Clay worms are temporary features; vadose water or the touch of a careless hand can easily remove them. In the Ghost Room we find an interesting object. Projecting from the ceiling is an 8-inch thick slab of angular brown rock. Its edges have been broken, rather than dissolved. This is a _clastic dike_. Evidence is lacking to definitely state its origin or manner of emplacement. But at some time in the past, there was an extensive crack in the marble which was filled by a mudlike material made up of bits of quartz, plagioclase, horneblende, epidote, clay, and other minor ingredients. It may have been washed in from the surface, or it could have been injected from below by earthquake shocks which cracked the marble and forced the pliable material into the cracks. Eventually it hardened into rock. Due to its non-soluble ingredients, the dike was not dissolved when the Ghost Room was formed. Like the “blades” we discussed previously, it remained as a projection into the room while the marble walls receded under solution activity. Being brittle, it has apparently been broken off periodically by the jar of earthquakes or cave collapse. Another obvious discrepancy in the marble framework of the caves is the thin layer of slate found in the 65-foot tunnel. This reveals an interruption in the limestone sedimentation of the Triassic sea. A thin layer of shale was deposited between limestone layers. Later, when the limestone became marble, the shale became slate. It should be mentioned here that limestone and shale vary greatly in their contents and often interblend with each other. “Pure” limestone is white. Different shades occur with different amounts of claylike impurities. When the impurities overshadow the limestone, then the rock may be called shale. The whitest marble in Oregon Caves came from the purest limestone. The darker, blue-banded marble is rich in slate impurities. [Illustration: The lacework effect of clay “worms”] LIFE IN THE CAVES If the Indians of southwest Oregon knew of Oregon Caves they left no evidence of the fact. Possibly its remote and rugged setting was too far away from their normal haunts near the fertile valleys and salmon-rich rivers. Or they may have known of the cave, but superstitions forbade their entering it. To our knowledge, Elijah Davidson was the first person to penetrate its depths. Other creatures used it regularly. Bears, mountain lions, coyotes, bobcats, skunks and other predators found the outer chambers ideal dens or resting places. Within the “twilight zone”—the galleries near the surface where some light penetrates—rodents of several kinds entered freely and even made nests. Today, we find the industrious woodrat still gathering mounds of sticks, leaves, flashbulbs, and hairpins to store near the 110-foot exit. Mice and rabbits are frequently seen in the cave. Occasionally the tracks of the ringtail betray his secretive hunting trips into the cave. In 1935, even a mountain beaver was found in the Ghost Room. However, there is only one mammal truly adjusted to normal living inside the dark portions of the caves. This is the bat. (See illustration below). There are eight species of bats that use Oregon Caves. Most common is the long-eared myotis. None are abundant, and most visitors do not see them, for this is not a “bat cave” in the same sense as Carlsbad and other caves. Also, the bats prefer the undisturbed sections of the caves, where people seldom enter. In spite of this, they attract much interest and are the subject of much discussion. The only mammal capable of flight, bats are also unique in their ability to fly in total darkness deep within caves. [Illustration: Hibernating bat in “dry” room] This latter skill puzzled scientists for many years until, in the 1930’s, it was learned that bats navigate in darkness by echo-location, a system similar to the Navy’s sonar. The animal emits high-pitched squeaks, above the threshold of human hearing. The echo of the squeaks bounces off nearby objects and the bat is able to decipher, from a flood of up to sixty echoes a second, the size, shape, and distance of objects before them. So precise is this system that the animal is able to locate and capture flying insects in pitch darkness. Not only can they navigate in the dark, they can also remember echo patterns that help them to return again and again to the same place deep inside a cave. They feed at night, eating great numbers of insects. In winter a few of them hibernate in Oregon Caves and may be easily observed clinging head downward from the walls and ceilings for months at a time. During a bat-banding study a few years ago, 750 bats were fitted with tiny aluminum identification bands and released. To date, however, none of these bats have been found elsewhere, nor have any foreign bands turned up here. Some bats are migratory, for each year in late August or September there is an influx of several hundred that may be seen in the caves for only a few days. Then they are gone again. Certain arthropods—millepedes, spiders, moths and small wingless insects called collemboles—are abundant in the “twilight zone” of the caves, where they feed on organic matter and upon each other. Thus animal life in the cave is more prominent than many people suspect. _Plant Life_ When the cave lights were installed in 1932, conditions were established for the entrance of another type of life—plants. Carried into the cave by water or air currents, spores of primitive plants could now germinate and live. Near the light fixtures we find interesting colonies. The green coating several feet from the lights are clusters of _algae_. They have no leaves, stems or roots; in fact they are the simplest and most universal of the earth’s green plants. They require much less light energy than the _mosses_ which grow only a few inches from the lights. In one or two places we also find fleshy green _liverworts_ which look like blobs of spilled paint. And now and then we find the cave’s highest type of plants, the _sword ferns_. Diminutive in comparison with their kin outside the cave, these tiny ferns are nevertheless able to survive near the lights which burn at least part of every day during the year. THE FUTURE What next? Like lakes and waterfalls, caves are temporary features of the drainage pattern of an area. The same processes which produce them will eventually destroy them. At Paradise Lost we see that an appreciable part of the original room has already been filled with cave deposits. Many side passages in the caves have similarly been blocked off by the accumulation of flowstone. On the outside, surface erosion will wear away the roof rock until the caverns collapse. The rooms will be filled with sunlight and exposed to rapid weathering. The calcium carbonate that was laid down in the Triassic sea, then lifted into mountains, then changed to calcite cave deposits, will again be dissolved by water and carried back to the sea. We know this because remnants of other caves reveal the pattern of creation and destruction common to all caves. The end will not come at Oregon Caves for thousands or millions of years. But it will come. The work of water and other erosive forces never ceases. HUMAN STORY Oregon Caves have been known since a day in 1874 when Elijah J. Davidson went hunting in the Siskiyou Mountains. The story goes that, after killing a deer, he followed his dog to a large hole in the mountain. Here he heard sounds of fighting coming from within. Being undecided as to what to do, he stood waiting—then his dog gave vent to a weird howl, as if in great pain. Hesitating no longer, Davidson rushed into the opening. He soon found the chase difficult to pursue without a light, whereupon he resorted to a few matches that he had in his shot-pouch. Striking match after match, he expected that he would soon be at the scene of the struggle. Before arriving there, however, his supply of matches gave out, leaving him in the dark. Davidson finally found his way back to a running stream of water, and following it, came to the mouth of the cave. Soon after, the dog came splashing down the creek, unhurt. As it was well on in the evening, Davidson decided to go back to camp and return the next day. Before leaving, however, he placed near the entrance to the cave the buck he had recently killed. He anticipated that a bear would come out for food, eat all it could and then lie down by the remaining part. Returning early the next morning, Davidson found a monstrous black bear lying near the carcass of the deer. Davidson told others of his discovery, and the cave soon became an attraction for the adventuresome, portions of it being explored and opened. Early interest in commercializing the cave were thwarted by its remote location, far from roads and populous communities. In 1907, Joaquin Miller, the “Poet of the Sierra,” and Chandler B. Watson, author of _Prehistoric Siskiyou Island_ and the _Marble Halls of Oregon_, visited the cave. They were highly impressed and promoted the cave as the “Marble Halls of Oregon.” Public attention was aroused and the cave was established as Oregon Caves National Monument on July 12, 1909. (See illustration on page 32). Appreciable public use was not attained until 1922, when an automobile road was completed to the caves. The next year, 1923, the Forest Service granted a concession to the Oregon Caves Company, which has provided public accommodations and cave guide service since then. In 1933, the Monument was transferred to the National Park System. Concurrently, the completion of the 512-foot exit tunnel that same year greatly improved cave tour circulation. The public use pattern, relatively unchanged for the next three decades, was established after the opening of the concessioner’s chateau building in 1934. The chateau is noted for its charming architecture, complementing the steep, forested setting. CONSERVATION AND PRESERVATION Oregon Caves have been set aside as a national monument because of their outstanding natural features. The National Park Service is charged by Congress to provide for the public use and enjoyment of the area “in such manner and by such means as will leave it unimpaired for ... future generations.” [Illustration: A visit to Oregon Caves in 1912] Natural things and natural processes are paramount. Manmade facilities such as trails, lights and steps are necessary to allow visitors to enjoy the cave. But they are kept at a minimum. Your guide will ask you not to touch any of the cave formations. This is to keep them from being stained or broken. Prior to the establishment of the National Monument in 1909, fragile formations were the object of severe vandalism and thoughtless destruction by souvenir hunters (see illustration page 33). It is doubly important to preserve the remaining features for the benefit of those who will come here tomorrow and in later years. [Illustration: Vandalism: Nature required many thousands of years to create these stalactites. A thoughtless person needed only a few moments to destroy them.] Outside the cave, the Monument is a place where flowers are enjoyed in their natural state and not picked, where birds and wild animals are unmolested by hunters or trappers. The forest is undisturbed. On the trails away from the cave area, the hiker may see animals and plants fulfilling their existence as they did centuries ago. It is to this philosophy that the national parks and monuments are dedicated. GLOSSARY OF CAVE TERMS Bacon A thin sheet of calcite drapery having alternating dark and light bands which give it the appearance of a strip of bacon. The dark, reddish bands are usually caused by an iron oxide stain. Bedding plane The stratification or meeting place of two different layers of sedimentary rock. Blade A calcite sheet originally deposited in a crack, then later exposed. Breakdown Heaps of rubble on a cavern floor caused by the collapse of walls or ceiling. Calcium bicarbonate An unstable compound occurring when carbonic acid contacts calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate A mineral with the chemical formula CaCO₃. Calcite A crystalline form of calcium carbonate. Carbonic acid A weak acid occurring as a liquid, having the formula H₂CO₃, a mixture of carbon dioxide and water. Clastic dike A dike made up of fragments of pre-existing rocks. Column A speleothem formed when a stalactite and a stalagmite meet. Deposit A natural occurrence of mineral material, such as an iron ore deposit; or in the vocabulary of the speleologist, any cave formation originating from deposition. Drapery Hanging speleothem in the form of a curtain or drape. Dripstone A calcite deposit left by dripping water. Flowstone A calcite deposit left by flowing water along a cave wall or floor. Fracture A break in rock. Gallery An underground passage. Ground water Water within the earth, such as feeds wells. Helictite A variant form of stalactite which does not hang vertically or which has side growths resembling twisted roots. Joint A crack, which in limestone forms at an angle to a bedding plane. A series of joints often intersect each other in a four-sided pattern. Limestone A rock consisting chiefly of calcium carbonate, usually an accumulation of organic remains such as shells. Marble Limestone crystallized by metamorphism. Metamorphose To change into a different form, such as changing sedimentary rock (limestone) into a metamorphic rock (marble). Moonmilk A rare form of hydromagnesite or calcium carbonate which is semisolid. Phreatic zone The region, below the water table, in which rock is saturated with water. Popcorn Nodules of mineral deposits formed in such a way as to resemble popcorn. Rimstone A calcite deposit around the edge of a pool of water. Sedimentary rock Formed from deposits of sediments or from fragments of other minerals. Shale A sedimentary rock formed from deposits of clay or silt. Solution The process by which a substance is chemically combined with a liquid. Also, the state of being chemically so combined. Soda straw A small, hollow stalactite inside which drops of water descend. Speleogen A cave feature produced by solution of base rock. Speleologist One who makes a scientific study of caves. Speleology The scientific study of caves in all their aspects. Speleothem A cave feature produced by deposition of mineral. Spelunker One who explores caves as a sportsman or amateur speleologist. Stalactite A calcite speleothem which grows downward, icicle-fashion, as a result of deposition by dripping water. Stalagmite A calcite speleothem which grows upward from a cave floor as a result of deposition by dripping water. Vadose zone The region lying between the surface of the earth and the water table. Water which seeps or flows through this region under the pull of gravity is called vadose water. Water table The meeting place of the phreatic and vadose zones. Below it, the rock is saturated with water; above it, water under the pull of gravity is continuously flowing downward. SUGGESTED READING Davidson, E. J., “History of the Discovery of the Marble Halls of Oregon.” _Oregon Historical Quarterly_, Vol. 23, pp. 274-276 (1922). Folsom, Franklin, _Exploring American Caves_. New York, Crown Publishers, Inc., 1956. Halliday, William R., _Adventure Is Underground_. New York, Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1959. Mohr, Charles E., and Howard N. Sloane, _Celebrated American Caves_. New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1955. Wells, Francis G., Preliminary geological map of southwest Oregon. U.S.G.S. Mineral Investigation Map, MF 38, 1955. _RULES AND REGULATIONS_ (_Briefed_) 1. No person shall enter Oregon Caves unless accompanied by an authorized guide. 2. Children under 6 years of age are not permitted in the caves. A nursery is provided. 3. The destruction, injury, defacement or removal of any of the natural features, rocks, plants, or animals in the caves or Monument is prohibited. 4. No canes, umbrellas or sticks of any kind may be taken into the caves. 5. Dogs and cats must be kept under physical control and are not allowed on trails or in the buildings. 6. Careless disposal of trash is prohibited; please use the containers placed nearby. THIS IS _YOUR_ NATIONAL MONUMENT Please help keep it clean and undamaged for those who follow you. ADMINISTRATION Oregon Caves National Monument is a unit of the National Park Service. Inquiries should be addressed to the Park Manager, Oregon Caves National Monument, P.O. Box 377, Cave Junction, Oregon 97523. [Illustration: Cave entrance] Transcriber’s Notes —Silently corrected a few typos. —Added links to images mentioned in the text; reworded some references to fit a presentation without page facing. —Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook is public-domain in the country of publication. —In the text versions only, text in italics is delimited by _underscores_. End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Underworld of Oregon Caves National Monument, by Roger Jacob Cantor *** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OREGON CAVES *** ***** This file should be named 59262-0.txt or 59262-0.zip ***** This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: http://www.gutenberg.org/5/9/2/6/59262/ Produced by Stephen Hutcheson and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will be renamed. Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution. START: FULL LICENSE THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license. Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works 1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. 1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. 1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. 1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United States. 1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: 1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed: This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. 1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. 1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. 1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. 1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg-tm License. 1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. 1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. 1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided that * You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." * You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm works. * You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work. * You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. 1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. 1.F. 1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. 1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. 1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem. 1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. 1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. 1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life. Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact For additional contact information: Dr. Gregory B. Newby Chief Executive and Director [email protected] Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS. The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate. International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.