Bisayan grammar and notes on Bisayan rhetoric and poetics and Filipino dialectology

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69603 *** A BISAYAN GRAMMAR AND NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS AND FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY By NORBERTO ROMUÁLDEZ, B.A. —Provincial Fiscal of Leyte, P.I.— —Attorney-at-Law— —Formerly Director of “San Jose” College of Takloban— —Professor of Latin— O! good my lord, no Latin; I am not such a truant since my coming As not to know the language I have liv’d in SHAKESPEARE 1908. “PAG PAHAYAG” CO.—TAKLOBAN. TO THE TO THE YOUTH OF SAMAR AND LEYTE who are clearly demonstrating aspirations for a brighter future thru education this book is dedicated, in the hope that it may give a stimulus to their work and an incentive to appreciate what is best in their language as well as in the hope that, at a future day, some one of them may be fitted to do this work better than here presented. The Author INTRODUCTION The publication of a Bisayan grammar has been eagerly awaited by many. It has been desired by those who are interested simply in the study of a native dialect. It has been needed by all Americans who desire an acquaintance with the language of the people among whom they live in order that they may get into closer touch with the great mass of natives as yet unable to speak either Spanish or English. It has been requested by many natives who wish to improve their use of their mother tongue. To all such, the present volume will prove of great value. The author is recognized throughout Samar and Leyte as one of the highest authorities on the Samareño dialect. His statements may therefore be accepted as authoritative. His treatment of prefixes and suffixes, of similar words with different meanings, and of the various forms of the verb are especially interesting and valuable. It is hoped that Mr. Norberto Romuáldez may be able to carry out his intention of putting out a combined grammar and language book designed especially for those just beginning the study of Bisayan. Such a work in conjunction with the present grammar would immensly facilitate the acquisition of a speaking knowledge of the dialect. W. W. MARQUARDT, Division Superintendent of Schools. PREFATORY REMARKS This book is not intended to be a complete grammar, but is only an elementary work containing a collection of some principles governing the formation of the words and the construction of the sentences of the Bisayan [1] dialect spoken on the islands of Samar and nearly half of Leyte, by about four hundred thousand people. At random and at odd intervals as the author’s time permitted, he arranged, more or less in a logical grammatical order, the material gathered. Bearing in mind that there has never been any previous treatise on this subject worthy the name, the whole field therefore remaining practically unexplored, it will not be surprising that the use of spare moments covering only a short period has left much of the field undeveloped. However, what has been collected in this book will be found to be of primary importance to any one desiring to gain a quick acquaintance with the dialect for immediate practical use. After a careful study of the many examples under the different rules, coupled with a continuous practice, the user will be surprised—if he is a stranger—at the ease with which he acquires an Asiatic dialect, and—if he is a Filipino—how clear and logical is one of the most spoken dialects in his Mother-land. The author had no intention of launching this work at the present time; but it is done at the behest of his American friends who have urged him to issue what has been collected, a portion only of what is intended ultimately to be a complete treatise and grammar of Bisayan, in order that this material may be available for the use of persons taking an interest in the Islands, thereby bringing about a common means of communication, which promotes a better feeling between the people born here and the newcomer. The exposition of the different subjects is not in the modern didactic form generally used in this class of works. This is simply due to the lack of sufficient time. Thus the grammar is divided into the usual parts: orthography, prosody, etimology, and syntax. Some of these parts have been treated to a very limited extent, because time has not admitted of the collection of sufficient material and of the opportunity to weigh the relative values and eliminate the exceptions from the rules. An appendix has been added where two topics are treated: notes on Rhetoric and Poetics of Bisayan, and notes on Filipino Dialectology consisting in a short comparative study of this dialect in reference to Tagalog, one of its sister-dialects in the Archipelago. The first notes are designed to complete the knowledge of Bisayan after the grammar is mastered; the second are intended to show the possibility of the formation of a common Filipino language [2] out of the different dialects scattered thru out the Archipelago, in a similar way as the Modern High German has been formed out of the main primitive groups Frisian and Saxon. Frankish, Hessian, and Thuringian, and Alemannian and Bavarian. We have to repeat that our work is far from being perfect, even complete, on account of lack of sufficient time. Owing to the same circumstance, many errors in printing have crept into this book, which we have tried to correct at the end under the heading Errata. But we sincerely admit that not all of the mistakes that may be found in this book are to be assigned to lack of time. Like any other product of human industry, this work bears marks of errors arising from the two sources pointed out by Horace quas aut incuria fudit, Vut humana parum cavit natura. Acknowledgement is hereby made for the help rendered by Messrs. W. W. Marquardt, Div. Superintendent of Schools of Leyte, P.I., Fred Shoemaker, and H. W. Halbourg, in correcting part of the proof, and for the collaboration of Mr. Henry E. Neibert, Former American Teacher of Jaro, Leyte, P.I. whose knowledge of both tongues, English and Bisayan, added much material to the work. Hoping that this little volume may be of interest and real help, it is offered to an indulgent public for what it is worth. Norberto Romualdez Takloban, Province of Leyte, Philippine Islands. November 8, 1908. CONTENTS PAGE DEDICATION I INTRODUCTION III PREFATORY REMARKS IV CONTENTS IX ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY LETTERS 1 THE ACCENTS 2 PUNCTUATION 3 VOWELS 5 SYLLABLES 5 CAPITALIZATION 5 CONTRACTIONS 7 ETYMOLOGY PARTS OF SPEECH 6 Articles 7 Declension 8 Nouns 9 Diminutive 10 Figurative 12 Verbal 13 Compound 22 Derivative 23 Proper and Common 29 Positive, Comparative, and Superlative 32 Cardinal, Ordinal, Partitive, and Distributive 35 Collective 38 Gender 40 Number 40 Case 41 Important Observation 41 Transposition of Accents 43 Pronouns 47 Personal 47 Demonstrative 48 Possessive 50 Relative 52 Contractions 56 Verbs 57 Conjugation—Voices 58 Moods and Tenses 58 Number and Person 61 Inflections 61 Table 1.—Primitive Active 61 Table 2.—Progressive Active 61 Table 3.—Primitive Direct Passive 68 Table 4.—Progressive Direct Passive 70 Table 5.—Primitive Indirect Passive 73 Table 6.—Progressive Indirect Passive 75 Table 7.—Primitive Instrumental Passive 76 Table 8.—Progressive Instrumental Passive 78 Negative Forms 80 Interrogative Forms 82 Suppletory Verbs 84 Pronominal Form 84 Adverbial Form 84 Observation 87 Impersonal Verbs 88 Defective Verbs 88 Other classes of Verbs 89 Active Voice 90 Direct Passive 93 Indirect Passive 96 Instrumental Passive 96 Depreciative Verbs 96 Adverbs 97 Prepositions 98 Conjunctions 98 Interjections 99 SYNTAX Subjective relation 100 Predicative relation 100 Attributive relation 100 Complementary relation 101 Adverbial relation 102 Representative relation 102 Connective relation 103 Absolute and independent constructions 103 Syntax of verbs 103 Arrangement of words 105 VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE 105 Barbarisms 105 Foreign words 105 Foreign words unnecessarily used in Bisayan 106 Spanish words 106 Chinese words 111 English words 111 Foreign constructions 112 Foreign words necessarily used in Bisayan 112 APPENDIX NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS 117 Figures of Speech 117 Prose 121 Letters 121 Poetic forms 123 Versification 123 Collection of some Bisayan songs 124 Moral Poetry 124 Philosophic Poetry 125 Love Poetry 125 Sundry 126 NOTE ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY 128 Words exactly the same in Bisayan and in Tagalog 128 Words with some dialectal differences 130 Differences in the vowels i, o 130 Differences k, h, l, r, d, t 131 Differences in the accent, and in the separation of the syllables 132 Transformation from a to o and viceversa 132 ERRATA 133 ORTHOGRAPHY AND PROSODY LETTERS. The Bisayan letters are twenty: [3] a, as a in large b, } c, } as in English d, } e, as e in well g, as g in good ng̃, as ng in long h, as h in hat i, sounding ee l, } m, } as in English n, } o, as o in long p, as in English qu, as the English k r, } s, } as in English t, } u, sounding oo as in good y, as y in young After knowing the respective sounds of these letters, according to the preceding table, no rule is necessary for the pronunciation of Bisayan words. THE ACCENTS. The orthographical accent is an important sign in Bisayan, in order to give to the words their proper pronunciation, and, consequently, their proper meaning. Of the emission of the voice in pronouncing the Bisayan vowels, there are two ways: one is the ordinary way, like that of the English vowels, as in baga (red-hot coal or wood), dinhi (here), olo (head), and the other is by a guttural suspended emission of the voice, like the last a in bagà (lungs), the last i in dirì (not or no), and the last o in torò (drop). This guttural pronunciation is only used in the endings of words. From the various combinations of these ways of pronouncing the vowels and the force with which they are pronounced, it follows that a vowel, no matter which one it is, has four different sounds: 1st. As ordinarily, and without any particular force. 2nd. As ordinarily, but with force in its pronunciation. 3rd. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and without force. 4th. By a guttural suspended emission of the voice, and with force. The first way does not need any orthographical sign. But the last three ones require a special orthographical accent in each ease. When a vowel is pronounced as ordinarily, but with more force than others in the same word, the proper accent is the acute (´). When a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound, but without any force, the corresponding accent is the grave (`). And when a vowel is pronounced with a suspended guttural sound with force, its accent is the circumflex (ˆ), which is simply the combination of the two foregoing accents, as this last represents a sound that is the combination of the two sounds, suspended guttural and with force. Therefore, in writing the word quita, for example, in its three different meanings and according to its three different pronunciations, it must be as follows: quitá (we) quità (see) quitâ (look at). RULE. There are three different accents in Bisayan: the acute (´); the grave (`); and the angular, which we may call improperly circumflex (ˆ). The acute is located wherever it is needed, either at the beginning or in the middle or at the ending of the word. Examples: úpa (reward) upá (rice chaff). The grave and angular, by their nature, are only used upon words ending in a vowel, and then only upon the last vowel. Examples: dacò (large), dacô (larger) PUNCTUATION. The signs of punctuation in Bisayan are the same as those in English, the rules for the use of the period (.), colon (:), semicolon (;), comma (,), parenthesis (), dash (—), quotation marks (“ ”) and apostrophe (’) being identical. But the rules are different for the use of the interrogation and exclamation points, and hyphen. In Bisayan, the Spanish way is followed in using two points of interrogation and two of exclamation, the one at the beginning of the question or exclamation (¿) (¡), and the other at the ending (?) (!). While the hyphen (-) is also used in Bisayan to connect parts of a word divided at the end of a line, and to connect two or more nouns, adjectives, or particles, so as to form them into a single compound, it has an additional use which is to separate distinctly the syllables of certain words that would have a different meaning or none at all without the said separation. Examples: sál-ong (to hook) sálong (resin) súl-ay (belching of an infant) súlay (prop) bac-ad (to unroll) os-og (to draw near from afar) im-im (lip) sid-ap (to look at) san-o (when, future) cacan-o (when, past) [4] NOTE.—The above separations are not of the same character as those caused by contractions or elisions, where the proper sign is not a hyphen, but an apostrophe. As, gáb’i from gabii (night) cabitón’an, from cabitoónan (stars) pabáy’i, from pabayái (leave him or her) it’ im’ bugtò ng̃an from iton imo bugtò (your brother or hit’ ac’ patód, ng̃an hitón acon patód sister and my cousin). Therefore, it would not be correct to write gab-i, cabiton-an, pabay-i, where the apostrophe should be employed instead of the hyphen. However, the apostrophe is used only when needed to avoid wrong pronunciation or confusion. So the last of the preceding examples is written without any sign of punctuation, thus: it im bugtò ng̃an hit ac patód. VOWELS The Bisayan people, especially in Leyte, always have a tendency to separate the vowels in pronouncing the words, there being no Bisayan dipthong. So it is bi-ol (small basket) and not biol; cá-on (eat), ti-il (foot), ma-opay (good), and not cáon, tiil, maopay. But this refers only to spoken language, not to written. Some words, like uásay (axe), sabáo (broth) are pronounced ua-say, sa-bao, and not u-a-say, sa-ba-o. These syllables ua and ao are not dipthongs. The u in the syllable ua and the o in the syllable ao, are not the vowels u, o, but the consonant w. These words should be written more properly wásay, sabáw. [5] SYLLABLES Every vowel [6] with the consonant or consonants pronounced with it and every vowel pronounced alone form one syllable, and are written as such. This is the rule applied to the division of a word at the end of a line. Examples: ca-ru-ca-yá-can (conversation) bác-dao (stand) a-ha-cá (hemp), etc. CAPITALIZATION In Bisayan, the following words should begin with capitals: 1. The first word of every sentence. 2. The proper nouns. 3. The names of the days of the week and the months of the year. 4. Titles of honor or office. 5. All words, except prepositions, conjunctions and unimportant adjectives, in the titles of books and essays. 6. All names of God, and expressions referring to the Deity. 7. Words representing important events in history and epochs of time. CONTRACTIONS There is no contraction used in Bisayan, except that in the sign mg̃a (a particle employed to express the idea of plurality). Mg̃a is for mang̃a composed of ma (an important prefix of the Bisayan and Tagalog dialects, which bears the idea of abundance or plurality) and ng̃a (a conjunctive particle which is necessarily employed to connect the variable parts of speech). NOTE. It would be desirable to have the following contractions adopted in Bisayan, inasmuch as they are universally recognized: i.e. for id est. e.g. ,, exempli gratia. viz. ,, videlicet. etc. ,, et cetera. P.D. ,, post data. P.S. ,, post scriptum. N.B. ,, nota bene. a.m. ,, ante meridiem. p.m. ,, post meridiem. [7] ETYMOLOGY. PARTS OF SPEECH. These are eight in number, in Bisayan: article, noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection. ARTICLES. There are three classes: Definite: an (the) Indefinite: in (a) Personal: hi or si (no equivalent in English). The definite article, as well as the indefinite, is used in Bisayan in the same manner as its equivalent in English. The definite article, however, is sometimes used before proper nouns, and it is very often used before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. Examples: Nacánhi an batà (the boy or girl has come) Nacánhi in batà (a boy or girl has come) An Dyos [8] macagagáhum (God is omnipotent) An iní nga bucád (this flower) An acon calò (my hat) The personal article is always used before the names of persons; it is also used before the personal pronouns, except the third persons. Examples. Hi Pedro (Peter) Hi acó (I) Hi icao (you) Instead of hi, si may be used. [9] These articles do not change in gender. Examples: an amáy (the father), an iróy (the mother); hi Juan (John), hi María (Mary). The definite and indefinite articles change in the plural in the following way: SINGULAR PLURAL an an mg̃a [10] in in mg̃a The personal article does not change, in person or number, except in the third person plural where it takes the form of the third personal pronoun third person, plural number. Examples: Hi quitá (we) Hi camó (you, in plural) Hirá Pedro ng̃an hi Juan (Peter and John) DECLENSION.—Articles have two cases: nominative and objective. SINGULAR | PLURAL | NOMINATIVE: an in hi or | an mg̃a in mg̃a hirá or si | sirá OBJECTIVE: han or hin or ni, | han mg̃a hin nira, san sin can | or san mg̃a or canda | mg̃a sin | mg̃a Examples: An batà nagbahása han surát ni Pedro (the boy reads Peter’s letter). Hirá Carlos ng̃an hi Juan naghátag (Charles and John gave flowers canda Tomás ng̃an hi Pedro hin mg̃a to Thomas and Peter). bucád The objective case covers all the different cases used in other languages after the nominative, that is to say, the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative cases. RULES. 1. The Bisayan articles are used immediately before the words to which they refer. 2. The definite article may be used without expressing the object to which it refers, having, in this case, the nature of a relative pronoun. Examples: An nagtótoon, nahabábaro (He, who studies, learns). An mg̃a nagtututdò ha aton (They who teach us.) 3. The personal article is always necessary before the names of persons. It is not correct to say “Pedro nagsusurat”; hi is needed, and it must be: “hi Pedro nagsusurat” (Peter is writing). EXCEPTIONS. 1. Between the definite article and the word to which it refers, other words may be placed, in some instances, as in this phrase: An iní ng̃a baláy (this house), or an maopay ng̃a batà (the good boy or girl). The regular order in constructing the last phrase is: an batà ng̃a maopay. 2. When the names of persons are in the vocative case, the personal article is not used. Thus we say: Mariano, cadí dao (Mariano, come, please). Pamatì, Juan (listen, John). 3. In the objective case of hi, can is used before the verb, and ni after the verb. Examples: An can Juan guinsurát (what John wrote) An guinsurát ni Juan (what John wrote) N.B.—The indefinite article, when needed at the beginning of the sentence, is replaced by the phrase “usa ng̃a” So, if we wish to say “a boy came yesterday,” we should not say in batà nacánhi cacolop; but usá ng̃a batà nacánhi cacolóp. This phrase usá ng̃a is not a perfect article, but it has the character of an adjective, even when used as an article. Therefore, both the indefinite in and the phrase usá ng̃a may be used in the same sentence. So, we can say, changing the regular order of the last sentence: Nacánhi cacolóp in usá ng̃a bata (a boy came yesterday). NOUNS These are substantive and adjective. Both may be grouped in the following classes: primitive, diminutive, figurative, verbal, compound, derivative, proper, common, positive, comparative, superlative, cardinal, ordinal, partitive, distributive and collective. Nothing particular needs be said about the primitive. DIMINUTIVE Examples: PRIMITIVE DIMINUTIVE baláy (house) balaybálay saróual (trousers) sarouálay carahà (frying-pan) caraháay balóto (little boat) balotóhay As is seen, the diminutive is formed by the repetition of the primitive or by adding to the latter the affix ay or hay. The primitive is repeated when it has not more than two syllables. As, from dáhon (leave), dahondáhon, cáhoy (tree), cahoycáhoy. The affix ay or hay is added when the primitive has more than two syllables; ay being used in cases where the noun ends with a consonant, or a vowel with a grave or angular accent; and hay being employed when the primitive ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented or a vowel that is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it, or is preceded by more than one consonant. As, from sacayán (boat), sacayánay, habobò (low), habobóay, balicô (crooked), balicóay, [11] abacá (hemp), abacáhay, babaye (woman), babayéhay, banat-i (a tree so called), banat-ihay, malacsi (fast), malacsihay. But the dissyllabic primitive is not repeated when its first vowel is followed by more than one consonant, or when the last vowel has an acute accent or is pronounced separately from the consonant preceding it. In such cases the affix ay or hay is employed, the rules established for the use of these affixes being applicable to such diminutives. As, from támsi (bird), tamsíhay, not tamsitamsi, túl-an (bone), tul-ánay, not tul-antul-an, pulá (red color), puláhay, not pulapula, [12] sagpò (plug), sagpóay, not sagposagpò, sab-a (a kind of banana), sab-áhay, not sab-asab-a, bungto (town), bungtóhay not bungtobungto. Generally, as it has been observed in the preceding examples, the adjectives follow the same rules. As, from matám-is (sweet), matam-isay, malomó (soft), malomóhay, halípot (short), halipótay. But in must of the adjectives formed with ma (a particle bearing the idea of abundance) and ha [13] (a particle that bears the idea of place), like maopay, mabusag, mapulá, hatáas, halabà, the prefixes ma or ha are disregarded in the formation of their diminutives, their abstract roots being the only elements taken into consideration, as if such adjectives were dyssillabic. Thus, opay, busag, pulá, táas, lubà, being the abstract roots of the last mentioned adjectives, their diminutives will be: from maópay (good), maopay-ópay mabuság (white), mabusagbúsag mapulá (red), mapulapulá hatáas (high), hataastáas halabà (long), halabalabà [14] There are some adjectives that have irregular diminutives. Such are the following: DIMINUTIVE from REGULAR IRREGULAR dacò (large), dacòdacò dacolaay [15] gutì (small) gutigutì gutirurù [16] FIGURATIVE We call those nouns figurative that are applied to the objects which, not being of the same nature as that which is expressed by their roots, show nevertheless analogy or similarity with those represented by the corresponding primitive, in their meaning, form, use, or application. Examples: from bobón (fountain), mobonbóbon [17] (fontanel); cabáyo (horse), carocabáyo, (objects that are like a horse or cloud). dámpog (cloud), darodámpog, When the primitive has not more than two syllables, the formation of its figurative follows the same rules as those for the dissyllabic diminutive. As, from hadì (king), we have hadihadi (a person who, by his vanity or harshness, resembles the figure of a king). But when thy primitive has more than two syllables, or its last vowel is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the consonant—preceding it, its figurative is formed by adding to the root a prefix composed of its first syllable if it begins with a consonant or of its first vowel if it begins with a vowel and the syllable ro (a particle that bears the idea of imitation, repetition, or collection). As, from sacayán (boat), sarosacáyan ulalahípan (centipede), uroulalahipan isdà (fish), iroisdà can’on (cooked rice) carocan’on [18] NOTE.—Many of the figurative nouns have the same forms as the collective. There are few figuratives among the adjectives; of these, those having the form of figuratives are really comparatives. [19] VERBAL These are formed from the verb-root transformed by particles referring to the agents or the objects of the roots. Examples: from sáyau (to dance) parasayáu (dancer), tigsayáu (person who sometimes dances), magsarayáu (person appointed to dance) sarayauán [20] (place designed for dancing). sarayauón (dance or musical piece to be danced) [21]; from umá (to farm) paraúma (farmer), tig-úma (person used to do farming), mag-urúma (person in charge of farming), urumáhan, contracted urúmhan (place designed for farming), urumáhon, contracted urúmhon (ground or plant to be cultivated); from surat (to write), the similar verbals as above, so far as the idea of the root and the use permit, with this variant: susurátan, not sururátan, susuráton, not sururáton; from toóc (to weep), the similar verbals, so far as the root and the use permit, and this besides: matóoc (weeper); from bóong̃ (to break), the similar verbals, and this: maboroóng̃ (liable or expected to be broken); from inóm (to drink), the similar verbals, and the following: mainominóm (an inviting drink); from sosón (to correct), the similar verbals, and this: hinóson (person fond of or bold in correcting); from útang̃ (to borrow), hing̃útang̃ or hing̃ung̃utáng̃ [22] (person fond of or bold in borrowing). It may be observed that not all of the verb-roots produce the same number of verbal nouns. It depends on the particular character of every idea conveyed in the root, and mainly on the use. From the preceding examples, it is seen that the transformative particles of the verbal nouns are various, the said particles being the prefixes para, tig, mag, ma, hi, the interfixes [23] r, ro, um or the affixes an, on. These particles are very important in Bisayan as they greatly help to enrich the limited vocabulary of this tongue. For the sake of clearness, we shall see first the affixes. AN, ON. These particles refer to the complement of the verb-root, an to the indirect object of the action (generally regarding the place where the act occurs), and on to the direct object (generally referring to the termination of the action). An or on is used when the root ends with a consonant or a vowel with a grave or angular accent. An h preceds them when the roots ends with a vowel otherwise accented or non-accented, or pronounced separately from the preceding consonant or consonants. The particle an or han is simply added to the root, as, from catúrog (to sleep), caturogán (sleeping place); sing̃ba (to adore), sing̃báhan (church); taclob (to cover), taclóban [24] (covering place); tan-ao (to see at a distance), tan-aoan [25] (watching place); or is employed either with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root or with the first consonant and vowel of the root instead, as from cáon (to eat) caraonán from tíroc (to assembly) titiroeán (meeting place); or with its first vowel if the root commences with a vowel, as from aro (to ask) aaroán (place designed for asking). The particle on has the same use as an, as caturogón, siringbahon, lilibácon (from libác, to backbite), aaroon. NOTE.—The affix an is sometimes doubled, as, from lohód (to kneel down), lodhanán [26] from tambò (to lock out), tamboànan, from tambóan (window). PARA, TIG. Para bears the idea of habit, custom or occupation. Tig conveys the idea of a repeated, but not frequent, act. They are simply prefixed to the root without any other complementary particle, as, from cánhi (to come). paracánhi, tigcánhi. MA, WITH ON, WITH RO, OR WITH R. The particle ma conveys the idea of fondness, desirableness, or passive potentiality or possibility. When, it means fondness, it is employed either by putting it at the beginning of the root without any other particle, as from cáon (to eat), macáon (glutton), or by combining it with the affix on or hon, according to the case, as from catúrog (to sleep), macaturogón (sleepy head), from arába (to moan), maarabahón (person fond of moaning). When the prefix ma, bears the idea of desirableness, it is placed before the doubled root, when the root has not more than two syllables and its last vowel is preceded by not more than two consonants or is not pronounced separately from its preceding consonant or consonants, as from cáon, macaoncaón (thing inviting to be eaten) [27] from oná (to commence), maonaoná (provocative, quarrelsome), and in cases where the root has more than two syllables, or if not, where its last vowel is preceded by more than two consonants or is pronounced separately from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then this prefix is employed in combination with the interfix ro preceded by the first consonant and vowel of the root or by the vowel only if the root begins with a vowel, as from catúrog, macarocaturóg, ,, bányac, (to kick), maharobányac, ,, síd-ap, (to look at), masirosíd-ap, ,, arába, maaroarabá, ,, ígham, (to grunt), mairoígham, ,, ós-og (to draw near from afar), maoroós-og. When the particle ma conveys the idea of passive potentiality or possibility, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the root. The r with its complementary vowel is put after the first syllable of the root. As, from bóong (to break), maboroóng (brittle) ,, abót (to reach), maarábot (attainable). The particle ma is frequently replaced by the prefix ig or i combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, as from tambal (to cure), igtarámbal or (medicine), itárambal ,, surat (to write), isusúrat (thing to write with). MAG AND THE R. The prefix mag bears the idea of forcible, necessary, or continuous agency. It is employed with the interfix r combined with and before the first vowel of the root. This combination is placed between the first and the second syllable of the root. But when there is an r in the root, the interfix r is replaced by the first consonant of the said root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix r is sometimes suppressed, the said first vowel being used instead of the interfix. As, from sódoy (to stroll magsotodóy (one who strolls about), about) ,, bilíng̃ (to seek or magbiríling̃ (searcher), search), ,, siríng̃ (to request), magsisíring̃, (petitioner), not magsiríring̃, ,, ósoc (to set up), mag-orosóc (person designed to set up), ,, arót (to cut the mag-aárot (barber). hair), The particle mag is frequently contracted into ma, in which case the root is considered as having an r, as from suláy (to tempt), manunúlay (tempter), ,, tábang̃ (to assist), mananábang̃ (helper). HI This particle conveys the idea of boldness. When the root begins with a labial consonant, except the m, the said consonant is transformed into m, as from bása (to read), himása (person bold in reading), ,, pitíc (to leap), himític (person bold in leaping). When the root begins with an m, the prefix hi is not commonly used but the prefix para ma, or tig, as from múlay (to teach), para-, ma-, or tigmulay, not himúlay, ,, mogó (to observe), para-, ma-, or tigmógo, not himógo. When the root begins with a vowel, ng̃ is [28] appended to the prefix; ng̃ is also appended when the root begins with a guttural consonant, but then the said consonant is suppressed. As, from ásoy (to refer), hing̃ásoy (garrolous), ,, cáon (to eat) hingáon (bold in eating), ,, gúbat (to invade), hing̃úbat (bold in invading). When the root commences with the nasal consonant ng̃, the prefix hi is ordinarily replaced by the prefix para, ma, or tig, or the first syllable of the root is made long, as from ng̃isi (to laugh, para-, ma, or (person fond of showing the tig̃ngisi, or grinning). teeth), ñgisi When the root begins with any other consonant, except l, n, r, the said consonant is suppressed and the letter n is appended to the prefix, as from dolóng, (to struggle), hinólong (bold in struggling), ,, sosón (to correct), hinóson (bold in correcting), ,, tápod (to confide), hinápod [29] (bold in confiding) In all of these cases, the syllable following the prefix hi is sometimes doubled, according to the use, as, from himític, himimític, ,, hing̃ásoy, hing̃ang̃asóy, ,, hinóson, hinonoson, [30] etc. UM. This particle bears the idea of option. It is used among the verbs for the subjunctive mode. It is always combined with the interfix r or its substitutes, and is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. When the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is placed immediately before the vowel. Examples: from cáon (to eat), cumaraón (person going to, or expected to, eat), ,, abót (to arrive), umarábot (person expected to arrive), ,, arò (to ask), umaarô (person expected to ask). Some roots without r follow the rule as if they had an r, as, from sacá (to go up, to board), sumasáca (boarder). Observations: 1. There are verbals formed with ma combined with the interfix r or its substitutes. This formation takes place only in the intransitive verbs commencing with the particle ca which then conveys the idea of passivity. As, from caauód (to be ashamed), macaaráuod (shameful), ,, cabórong̃ (to be confused), macabobórong̃ (confusing), ,, casína (to be angry), macasisína (odious). 2. The infinitives of the verbs, which are always preceded by the particle pag, are frequently employed as substantives. In such cases the particle pag is transformed in the plural, its g being then replaced by the letter ng̃ if the root begins with a vowel or a guttural consonant, except g, or by the consonant n when the root commences with a dental consonant, or by the m if it begins with a labial. In the plural, the roots commencing with a consonant lose said consonant. When the root begins with a nasal or with the guttural g, said consonant is preserved and the g of pag is replaced by n. Examples: from arò (to ask), cáon (to eat), dáop (to approach) bása (to read), ng̃oyng̃oy (to groan), gábot (to, pull), we have: SINGULAR PLURAL pag-arò (asking) pang̃arò, pagcáon (eating) pang̃áon, pagdáop (approaching) panáop, pagbása (reading) pamása, pagngoyngoy (groaning) panngóyagoy, paggábot (pulling) pangábot, 3. The infinitives of roots commencing with the particle ca are also used as substantives, and then with or without the prefix pag. from cabido (to be sorry), pagcabídò, cabídò, (sorrow). In such cases, the affix an or on is sometimes employed, as from casáquit (to be sad), casaquítan (sadness), ,, casína (to be angry), casinahón (anger). COMPOUND The use gives the following: from solód (to enter) and sólodbálay, which means the person who baláy (house), thru his intimacy with the occupant of a house, enters in at any time; from sacá (to go up) and sacálúsad, applied to the person who is lúsad (to go down), very busy or who suffers a great misfortune and goes up and down the house repeatedly. It is also applied to boys or girls who go out the house frequently, especially without permission of their parents; from dosô (to push) and dosô-bótong, [31] applied to a person bótong (to pull), who takes determinations that are contradictory; from cábcab (to scratch) and cábcabtocâ, applied to persons who have tocâ (what a bird does when to expend for their subsistence all it picks up or bites that they gain by their work; something with its beak), from di, contraction of dirì diabotóncalóton, applied to that part (not), abotón, from abót (to of the human back, which our hands reach), and calóton, from cannot reach to scratch when it itches; cálot (to scratch), from tábag (help), ha, a tabaghaamong̃-ámong̃, applied to those preposition for the objective who maliciously pretend to help a case, among̃ámong̃ (to person in trouble, but injure him. Etc. malign); DERIVATIVE We consider under this heading the nouns derived from other nouns. Those originated from a verb are already treated as verbals. Most of the derivatives are adjectives. The derivatives, like the verbal, are formed with particles, prefixes, interfixes, and affixes. The usual particles are ca, ma, maca, mag, maqui, hi, pala, tag, as prefixes; r, in as interfixes; and an, on as affixes. As, from pauà (light), capanà (clearness) ,, áram (wisdom), maáram (wise) ,, bayáu (brother in mabaráyau (brother-in-law-to-be) law), ,, bidò (sorrow), macabibidò (sorrowful) ,, isdà (fish), maquiisdà (fond of fish) ,, púsod (navel), himósod (payment for attending to the navel of a new-born child) ,, bugtò (brother or magbugtò (referring to two sister), persons who are brothers or sisters) [32] ,, bisaya (bisayan), binisaya (bisayan tongue) ,, salâ (fault or saláan (guilty) guilt), ,, búuà [33] (lie), buuáon (liar). Ca bears the idea of quality, and is used alone or in combination with the affix an. As from hatáas (high), cahatáas (height), ,, dáot (bad), caraótan, carát’an (badness). ,, pauà (light), capauà (clearness). It is sometimes combined with the interfix in and the joined affix anon, as from masúgot (obedient), camasinug’tánon (obedience). Ma conveys the idea of abundance and future condition. In the first case, it is added at the beginning of the primitive, which is the form of great many adjectives, as, from ísog (courage, rage), maísog (courageous); and when it means future condition, it is used with the interfix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive, as, from asáua (wife), maarasauá (woman betrothed) The particle ma is frequently combined with the interfix in and the affix on or ánon. In plural, the ma is appended with g. As from túman (performance), matinumánon (faultless) plural, magtinumánon ,, sugót (obedience), masinug’tánon (obedient) It is also used without any affix, and then the primitive is doubled as from tubâ (a wine) matubatubâ (person or thing that smells as tubâ). Maca has the idea of potentiality, and is added to the beginning of the primitive, by doubling the first syllable of the primitive or by using the intermix r combined with the first vowel of the primitive. As, from álo (shame), macaaálo (shameful), ,, lípay (joy), macalilípay (rejoicer), ,, budlay (grievance), macaburúdlay (grievous). Mag conveys the idea of mutual relationship, and also of continuity in a few cases. It is simply added at the beginning of the primitive. Relationship. Examples: from patód (cousin), magpatód (cousins each other). It is sometimes appended with tala, as from amáy (father), magtalaamáy (father and son, or father and daughter). The derivatives formed with mag conveying the idea of mutual relationship, are always in plural. Continuity. Examples: from ága (morning), Mag-ága (the whole night until the morning); ,, colóp (evening); magcólop (the whole day until the evening.) Maqui signifies the idea of fondness, and is employed without any other transformative particle, as, from Dyos [34] (God), maquidyos (pious). It is used in very few cases to form verbals, as from hámpang̃ (to be present maquihahampang̃on (person fond of during a being present or conversation), taking part in a conversation). Hi, as transformative particle of derivatives, conveys the idea of boldness, and also of consideration, or of payment. We have seen that it means boldness when joined to verbs to form verbal nouns [35]. As to its use, it follows here the same rules as when employed with verbs. Examples: from quinatsilâ (Spanish hing̃inatsilà (one who ventures language), to talk Spanish, knowing but little of it). ,, apóy (grandfather), hing̃apóy ,, púsod (navel), himósod [36] Pala means resemblance. It is combined with the affix an. As, from buyo (betel palabuyóan (applied to the wine of nut), cocoanut, that resembles the taste of the betel nut) ,, biráu (a plant), palabirauán (applied to the fruit of cocoanut that resembles the color of biráu) ,, camote (sweet palacamotián (applied to the fruit of potato), “nang̃ca” (a tree) that resembles the color of camote) ,, gátas (milk) palagatásan (applied to the young rice or corn whose grain is yet liquid resembling the milk) Tag conveys the idea of ownership or authorship. It is simply added to the primitive. As from baláy (house), tagbaláy (owner of a house) ,, sugò (order), tagsugò (author of an order). It is sometimes used to indicate distribution, and then it is frequently combined with the prefix ma preceding it. As from túig (year), tagtuig (year by year) ,, ádlao (day), matag-ádlao (every day). These last particles are sometimes replaced by iquina which expresses the same idea. As from túig, adlao, búlan (month), pagcáon (meal) iquinatúig (every year) iquinaadlao (every day) iquinabulan (every month) iquinapagcáon, (every meal) The interfix r, which bears no particular meaning, is here employed under the same rules as those established for its use in the figurative and verbal nouns. The interfix in expresses imitation. It is added at the beginning of the primitive if the latter commences with a vowel. Otherwise, it is placed before the first vowel of the primitive. As, from Súlug [37] (the archipelago of Súlu), sinulúg (a fight or dance after the Suluan fashion) from tuyáo (crazy), tinuyáo (foolishness) from ínsic (chinaman), ininsic (chinese language; ways; or habit). An and on among the derivatives, signify the idea of abundance or participation, an frequently conveying the idea of place. Both are appended to the primitive without any other particle, and complemented with an h, in the same way as in the formation of verbals. [38] Examples: from pálad (fate), paláran [39] (fortunate), ,, asáua (wife), asauáhan (married man), ,, salapi (silver, salapian (wealthy) money), ,, curi (difficulty), curián (stubborn person) ,, sumat (information), sumatán (credulous) ,, burabud (fountain), buraburon [40] (place where there are many fountains) ,, taro (wax), taróhon (an object that has wax on) ,, tubac (ant), tubacón (a thing that has ants on.) These particles are sometimes employed jointly, the an preceding the on. This compound affix, anon, bears the idea of great abundance, or birth or residence place, and is preceeded by an h according to the same rules established for an and on. Examples: from mang̃gad (wealth), mang̃gáran (wealthy), manggaránon (rich). ,, abacá (hemp), abacáhan (person that has hemp), abacahànon (person that owns much hemp), ,, Tan-auan (a town so tan-auananon (native or resident called), of Tanauan). ,, Palo (a town so paloánon (native or resident called), contracted of Palo), palon’on ,, Tolosa (a town), tolosahanon, (native or resident contracted of Tolosa), tolosán’hon ,, Dagami (a town), dagamiánon, (native or resident contracted of Dagami), dagamin’on ,, Maasin (a town), maasinánon, (native or resident contracted of Maasin), maasinhon [41] ,, Sugbu (Cebú), sugbuánon, (native or resident of Cebú), ,, Samar (province samaránon, (native or resident so called), contracted of Sámar), samárnon ,, Manila (Manila), manilaanon, (native or resident contracted of Manila). manilan’on ,, America (America), americahanon, (American). contracted americanhon [42] OBSERVATIONS. There are other forms of derivatives, viz: ca cat iquina or quina, taga, tagum or tagun, hi. Ca means also company, as from tupad (to be side by side) catúpad (the person side by side). Cat means season, as from “áni” (harvest), “cat-aní” (harvest time). Iquina or quina expresses nature, as from “táuo” (man), “buhi” (alive), “iquinatáuo” (property peculiar to men), “quinabuhi” (life). Taga, means origin or residence, posession, or measure, as from “Leyte” (Island so called), “súndang̃” (bolo), “íroc” (armpits), we have: “taga Leyte” (from Leyte), “tagasúndang” (one who bears a bolo), “tagairoc” (up to the armpits). When this particle taga means measure, it is sometimes replaced by pa, as from “háuac” (belly), “paháuác” (up to the belly). Tagum expresses the idea of power, virtue, or peculiarity. When the primitive commences with n, the m of tagum is suppressed. When the primitive begins with a consonant not labial, the said m is replaced by n. It is sometimes combined with the affix an, As: from “matá” (eye) “baba” (mouth), “lipong” (confusion), we have “tagumatá” (peculiar disease of the eye), “tagumbabáan” (person whose words have a peculiar power or virtue), “tagunlipóng̃an” (one who has the power to make himself invisible). Hi is also combined with the interfix r and the affix an, as from “polós” (profit), “himorólsan” (profitable). Among verbs ha is used instead of hi, as from “cáon” (to eat), “hacaraón” (eatable). NOTE.—The past participles take sometimes the affix an, as from cauil (fish-hook), quinauilán (fish caught with “cauil”) bitánà (a kind of fishing binitanáan (fish caught with net), “bitanà”). There are other transformative particles not so important as those already mentioned, and which the use will show to the student. PROPER AND COMMON Like in other tongues there is in Bisayan a distinction between proper and common nouns. Tacloban, Catbalaógan, Ilong̃-ílong̃ (Iloilo), Espanya (Spain), Pedro (Peter), Guillermo (William), etc., are proper nouns; bucad (flower), bató (stone), áyam (dog), etc., are common. The Bisayan language has also familiar names for persons. As of Pedro, Péndong̃, Endong̃, Edóng̃, Edós, Pedó, etc; ,, Juan, Uáuang̃, Uauay, Uáuà, Uuán, Uuâ, etc; ,, Vicente, Tenteng̃, Titíng̃, Sente, Setée, etc; ,, Rafael, Pápeng̃, Paéng̃, Paél, Pápè, etc; ,, Margarito, Titong̃, Itong̃, Titoy, Itoy, etc.; ,, Francisco, Quicoy, Incoy, Quicò, etc; ,, Juana, Uánday, Uáday, etc.; ,, Antonio, Tónyo, Todóc, etc.; ,, Alejandro, Andong̃, Andoy, etc.; ,, Isabel, Sabel, etc.; ,, Gregorío, Goyóng̃, etc.; ,, Saturnino, Satúr, etc.; ,, Claudia, Calán, etc. Among the names of places, there are a few formed by the preposition can (which means possession or property), and the particles ca (which denotes abundance), and guin (which conveys the idea of past passive action), as Cansámqui (a place, which probably belonged formerly to one named Samqui) Can-orquin (place probably owned formerly by one called Orquin) Canramos, [43] transformed Carrámos (place probably owned or possessed in former times by one named Ramos) Cabuyúan (place where formerly there was much “buyu” (betelnut)) Cabalían (place where the strong current of the sea breaks the oars (balì)) Guintiguían (place in the “San Juanico strait,” where the strong current of the sea tests the rowers (tigui)) Guintúlyan (a place in Basáy, Samar, where probably many fishes were caught (tulúy) with nets.) Etc. NOTE.—The names of persons among the Bisayan people are all Christian at the present time. Many of the surnames are Spanish, many others being of Bisayan origin as Lágbas, Pócpoc, Macasáit, Cabaobao, Balasbas, Yagomyom, etc. To indicate relationship, as the English papa, mamma, and respect, confidence, or tenderness, there are a number of Bisayan nouns, which show by themselves the relation between the speaker or writer and the person to whom the noun is applied. Examples: for papa, tátay or tatáy, tátang̃ or tatáng̃, itáy, or itáng̃; ,, mamma, nánay or nanáy, nánang̃ or nanáng̃, ináy, or ináng̃. There are others applied to grandfathers and grandmothers, and also to those persons who act or are considered as fathers or mothers. Examples: Mano, manóng, mamo, mamoy, babay, dudoy, dudù inco, tutoy, yuyu, iyô (applied to elder brothers, uncles or elder male relatives of any degree, even to persons not related to but respected by the speaker or writer). Mana [44] manang, manáy, mama, mamay. manding, duday, duda, insi tutay, yuya, tuta (applied to elder sisters, aunts or elder female relatives of any degree, even to women not related to, but respected by the speaker or writer). Tío, or tí, tia or tí (applied as á form of politeness and respect, respectively to men or women not related to or unknown by the speaker or writer). Idoy, íntoy, budóy, busóy, and idáy, inday, udáy, idíng, iyíng, bididay, nonay, neneng, (applied with tenderness to boys or girls respectively). NOTE.—The word cuán (so and so), not meaning anything by itself, is applied to persons or things whose names the speaker or writer does not know, or venture, or wish to express. As the phrase “so and so”, it helps a great deal in a conversation, and is used also instead of the verbs and other parts of speech. The words inín (contracted of iní nga) and adâ (I guess, perhaps) are also used in the conversation, as auxiliary particles, they being then equivalent to the English why. Examples: Question.—“¿Guinsorat mo na an balos?” (Have you already written the answer?) Answer.—“Oo guincoan co na gad” (Yes I already have). Q.—¿Háin an basahón? (Where is the book?) A.—Inin ... aadto ada ha ac solód (why ... I guess it is in my room) Q.—Mapiráu, ¿ano in bubuhaton co? (I am sleepy, what shall I do?) A.—Ada ... catúrog (Why ... to sleep). POSITIVE, COMPARATIVE, AND SUPERLATIVE. As in other languages, there are three degrees for adjectives, also used for substantives in Bisayan. These degrees are positive, comparative and superlative. Nothing particular needs be observed about the positive degree, except what is mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs: The comparatives are formed exactly in the same way as the figuratives [45], the number of syllables being disregarded, as if all has more than two syllables. from hatáas (high), harohataás (higher), ,, hobóg (intoxicated), horohobóg (more intoxicated), ,, táuo (man), tarotauó (more of a man). In the formation of adjectives prefixed with ma, this particle is preferably disregarded, as if such particle did not exist, as from maópay (good), maoroopáy (better) ,, magbuság (white), maboroboság (whiter), etc. There is another form of comparative consisting in the use of the combined particles labi (more) and ca, as labí ca maopay (better), labí ca mabusag (whiter). This last form is sometimes used for superlatives. The superlatives are of three classes: Those which do not admit any comparison, and which we call absolute or supreme superlatives, as guimaopáyi (the best of all); those which are not so absolute, and which we call ordinary superlative, as, capín ca maópay } maopay nga capín } (very good); maopay hin sogóng̃ [46] } and those which convey the idea of excess, and which we call excessive superlatives, as uraúra [47] ca maópay } (to good). maópay ng̃a uraúra } As is seen from the preceding examples, the supreme supertive is formed by adding to the beginning of the primitive the prefix gui and by appending to said primitive the affíx i. The first syllable of the primitive may be doubled as use permits. As, from hatáas (high, tall), guihataási, or (the highest) guihahataasi táuo (man), guitáu’i (a true and perfect man). The first form is also adopted for the substantives to show the highest degree of identity as in this phrase: An guiaamáyi mo gud an natauág ha imo (It is your very father who calls you). The ordinary superlative is formed with the particles capin ca or labí ca placed before the primitive, or with the particles caópay, ng̃a capin, or hin sogong̃ put after the primitive. As, from mabido (sorry) capín ca mabidò } labí ca mabidò } mabidò caopay } (very sorry) mabidò ng̃a capín } mabidò hin sogóng̃ } Some of the adjectives formed with particle ma, have another form for ordinary superlative, in doubling their root and disregarding the prefix ma, as from “masiróm” (dark), “masiromsiróm” [48] (very dark). The excessive superlative is formed with the particle uraúra ca placed before the primitive, or the particle ng̃a uraúra located after the root. As, from maasín (salty) uraúra ca maasín } (excessively salty) maasín ng̃a uraúra } The idea of the excessive superlative is also expressed sometimes with the particles “lapás ca” (excessively), or with the phrase “dirí sonô hin ca” or “dirì socól hin ca” (out of measure), placed before the primitive, as lapás ca maasín dirì sonô hin ca maasín dirì socól hin ca maasín. NOTE.—The particles “labi” and “capin” take sometimes the affix an, as from mahúsay (orderly, beautiful), labínan ca mahúsay (very beautiful); from masáquit (painful), masáquit ng̃a capínan (very painful). CARDINAL, ORDINAL, PARTITIVE, AND DISTRIBUTIVE. The cardinal adjectives are the following: usá, contracted us, (one) duhá (two) tuló (three) upát (four) limá (five) unóm (six) pitó (seven) ualó (eight) siyám (nine) napulò [49] (ten) napulo cag [50] usá (eleven). caruhaán [51] (twenty) catloán (thirty) cap’atán (forty) calim’an (fifty) caúnman (sixty) capitoán (seventy) caualoán (eighty) casiyamán (ninety) usá ca gatós (one hundred) duhá ca gatós (two hundred) usá ca yocót (one thousand) usá ca ríbo [52] (ten thousand) usá cagatós ca ribo (one million), etc. As it is noticed above, the cardinals are formed by the preposition “cag” (and), the prefix “ca” (which means collection) and the affix “an”, added to the primitives “usá, duhá, tuló, upáo, lima, unóm, pitó, ualó, siyám, napulo, gatós, yocót, ribo”, the phonetical reasons being taken in consideration. Thus we say: caruhaán, not caduhaán, catloan, not catuloán, cap’atán not caupatán, calim’an not calimahán, caúnman, not caunoman. The word “usa” is frequently contracted, especially in familiar language, by the supression of the last vowel. Thus: us ca gatos } us ca yocót } instead of “usá” ca etc. us ca ribo } In reading the numbers, the English way is followed, the particles “uga may” being sometimes employed especially in cases of large amounts. Thus, to read this number 987654321, we would say: “Casiyamán cag ualó cayocót, pitó cagatós caúnman cag limá caribo, ng̃a may upát ca yocót, tuló ca gatós caruhaán cag usá.” NOTE—In Bisayan, there is no word corresponding to the English zero (0). However, its figure is used in Bisayan. It is suggested that the word “lung̃ág” (empty), or “uaráy” (nothing) be adopted as corresponding to the word “zero” which is derived from modern Latin zephiram from Arabic cafrun, cifrun or sefer (empty). The ordinals are formed by employing the particles “ica” (which bears the idea of order), placed before the cardinal. As ica usá, ica napulò ica calim’an ica upat ca gatós ica siyam ca yucót icá pito ca ribo. The ordinal of usa has also simple forms, as siyahan, siyapá, and frequently admits the particle icag instead of ica, as icag usá. The partitives have exactly the same form, as the ordinals, except in that the ordinals cag usa, siyahan and siyapá are never used as partitives; and that there is the form tung̃â and its variants catung̃â, tung̃â or catung̃â hin or ng̃a (half), employed instead of icaduhà. The phrase ca bahín (part) is frequently used in the partitives to avoid confusion. Thus an icaupát ca bahín (the fourth part) The particle ica is sometimes contracted into caas “catung̃a” (half), “cauróg” (most). The distributives are formed by adding to the cardinals the particle tag (which conveys the idea of distribution). As tag dúha (two, each) tag caualóan (eighty, each) tag yúcot (thousand, each) When the distributive bears the meaning of portion, the particle iquina is combined with tag. As iquina tag duha (each two), etc. COLLECTIVE The collective nouns are formed by adding at the beginning of the primitive the prefix ca (which bears the idea of collection or reunion) and the affix an. As, from bata (boy or girl), cabatáan (reunion of boys or girls) táuo (person), catauóhan (reunion of persons). duhá (two), caruhaán (twenty). These forms are very frequently used to make the plural of the nouns, as of the singular batá we make the plural. mga batà or cabataan. NOTE—The particle ca is also employed to express abstract ideas, as from buság (white color), mabuság (white), camabuság (whiteness) The particle pag is sometimes added at the beginning of the particle, as pagcamabuság (whiteness). The collectives take also the form of the figuratives with or without the particles ca and an, as the use may permit, as caborobong̃tóhan, borobóng̃to. NOTE.—There is another class of nouns which may be called depreciative. They are limited in number. The following belong to such class: for batà (child), nagbobóto (a being born thru an explosion) lumátud (person of big abdomen) lugtuc, [53] motatô [54] motó, from botó (report of a gun, explosion); for anác (son or daughter) nahólbot (past participle of “hólbot” to pull out of a hole); for baba (mouth) nasárag (of “sárag” to put something in the mouth); for camót (hand) camrauón (from “cámram”, what an eagle does with its fingers); for tiil (foot) sincádol [55] etc. There are despectives derived from their primitives, as, for húbya (lazy), “húbsac” [56] The variations to which the Bisayan names are subject, are: gender, number, and cases. GENDER. The gender is scarcely regarded. We have however for few nouns the natural and grammatical genders. Examples of natural gender: MASCULINE FEMININE laláqui (male person) babaye (woman) lalaquí (male not person) babayé (female not person) amay (father) iróy (mother) bána (husband) asáua (wife) bata (uncle) dadâ (aunt) baylo (brother in law) hipág (sister in law), etc. Examples of gramatical gender: MASCULINE FEMININE dudoy [57] duday tutoy tutay idoy iday intoy inday mano mana manoy manáy manong manang [58] tío tía [59], etc. NUMBER The plural is determined by the particle mga or by those for collectives as formerly seen [60], or by the interfix g among the adjectives. Examples: of táuo (man) “mg̃a táuo,” or “catauóhan” (men), of dacò (large), dagcò (large, plural). of matam-is (sweet), magtam-is (sweet, plural), of hatáas (high), hagtáas (high, plural). When the noun is preceded by numeral adjectives, the singular keeps its form, as usá ca táuo (one man), napulò ca tauo (ten men), usá ng̃a baláy (one house), calim’an ng̃a baláy (fifty houses). Some adjectives do not admit the interfix g, for euphonical reason, as of hubyà (lazy), mg̃a hubya, not húgbyà, etc. CASE. There is no inflection for Bisayan nouns to distinguish their different cases, as in Greek and Latin. The cases are determined by the prepositions and by variable parts of speech preceding the noun. IMPORTANT OBSERVATION. There are great many Bisayan nouns composed of the same letters, but which have different meanings according to the accent they bear. Of these are the following: anáy (she-hog), ánay (before) apó (grandson or ápò (a thing fully grand-daughter), introduced) áyao (distributive ayáo (no, imperative) possession), bábà (mouth), babá (to carry a thing on the back) babáye (woman), babayé (female not person) baga (red-hot coal or bága (lung), bagá (like) wood), bálay (turn), baláy (house) bálod (a kind of dove), balód (wave) bálos (return), balós (revenge) bánus (abundant, thick), banús (to scrub) bárang̃ (an amulet), baráng (knot) bayáo (brother-in-law), báyao (to lift up) bucád (flower), búcad (to dig up) búhat (work), buhát (to raise) buhi (alive), buhi (losse) buláo (yellow), búlao (to provoke a stranger) búrong [61] (fog), buróng (to throw) busà (reprimand), búsà (therefore) cóbal (thread), cobál (corn, callosity) comót (sinked), cómot (quick) dósol (pain of the dosól (despective form of stomack), “cáon”, to eat) hóron (to pass the night), horón (farm) igo, (just), igô (to be hit) lága (flame), lagà (cooked) láya (a net for fishing), layà (to wither), layâ (withered) laláqui (man), lalaquí (male, not person) látos (reaching, latós (to whip) overtaking), lúya (weakness), luyà (lime), luyâ (restlessness), luy-a (ginger) muláy (play), múlay (to teach) obós (low), óbos (to exhaust) usá or usâ (one), úsa (to marvel) úpa (reward), upá (rice chaff) pátag (plane), patág (a kind of basket) píli (a tree so called), pilì (to select) pálad (palm), palád (a fish) pusò (flower of banana), pusô (rice especially cooked) pusâ (pounded), pusà (to wash the feet) púto (a dainty so called), pútò (partition), putó (last son or daughter) sábot (agreement), sabót (filement or to understand) sácay, (passenger or sacáy (to embark) companion on a boat), sócot (frequent), socót (to collect) súso (teat), susò (thickset), susô (a mollusk so called) tíao (joke), tiáo (maniac) tíma (finished), timá (uneven) túba (a plant so called), tubâ (wine from cocoanut or nipa) tubó (sugar-cane), túbò (to grow), etc. TRANSPOSITION OF ACCENTS. The accent of a word frequently changes its place upon its transformation. In the diminutives formed by repetition of the root or by the affix ay, the acute accent is always placed upon the penult. As from baláy, balaybálay ,, saróual, sarouálay ,, balóto, balotóhay. The grave accent of the root is preserved; and its angular accent becomes grave, which is preserved in its repetition. As from dacò, dacòdácò ,, bohô (hole), bohòbóhò (little hole). When the primitive has the acute accent on its penult, said accent is transferred to the last syllable of the original primitive, the repeated primitive following the preceding rules. As. from dáhon, dahóndáhon ,, cáhoy, cahoycáhoy ,, halípot, halipótay ,, maópáy, maopay-ópay ,, hatáas, hataastáas In the figuratives, the same rules are followed; and when the interfix ro is employed, the primitive generally loses its acute accent which is placed upon the penult of the figurative. As from sacayán, sarosacáyan. In the verbal nouns, it is a general rule that when the verb root has its acute accent on its penult, its verbals have said accent trasplaced to their last syllables, and viceversa, as from sarát, (to write), from bása (to read) parasúrat parabasá tigsúrat tigbasá magsusúrat magbarasá susurátan barasahán susuráton barasahón masúrat mabasá isusúrat, ibarasá; except when the transformative particle is ma meaning desirableness, in which case the acute accent is always on the last syllable; and also in case of the particle hi, where the accent is always put on the penult. As masuratsurát, himása. In case where the penult, of the verb root is necessarily long, as when its vowel is followed by more than one consonant, and when the last syllable of the root is pronounced independently from the consonant or consonants preceding it, then the original acute accent of the root is preserved on the penult of the verbal. As from cánhi (to come), dól-ong (to bear, to accompany) paracánhi paradól-ong tigcánhi tigdól-ong cumaránhi domoról-ong caranhían dorol-óngan caranhíon dorol-óngon macanhíon madol-óngon icaránhi idoról-ong hang̃aránhi hinonól-ong In the derivatives, when the accent is on the penult of the primitive, it is also placed on the penult of the derivative; and when the accent is on the last syllable of the primitive, it is also put on the last syllable of the derivative, as from áram, maáram bayáu, mabaráyau púsod, himósod búua, buuáon tubác, tubacón. It must be noted that we refer to the acute accent. It sometimes happens that the last syllable of the primitive has angular accent, in which case such accent is discomposed, the grave being kept and the acute being transposed to the penult of the derivative, as from salâ, saláan, where the a of the penult really bears two accents, angular and grave, the angular not being employed for the reason that is it not necessary, as the last two aa are pronounced separately [62], and because it is not proper, as the angular accent is only used at the endings of the words. [63] In the derivatives formed with taga, or tag, or maqui the accent of the root is not changed. As from bódo, (salted fish), tagabódo baláy (house), tagbaláy calámay (dark sugar) maquicalámay The comparatives formed with, the interfix ro, have always the accent on the last syllable no matter where it was in the primitive. As from halábà (long), harohalabâ uguis (white), urouguís. The superlatives formed with the prefix gui and the affix i always have the accent on the penult, without regarding where it was in the primitive. As from halárum (deep), guihahalarúmi matahúm (beautiful), guimamatahúmi The collectives follow the way in which their primitives are accented, so, if their, primitives have the accent on the penult, they have it on the penult, and when the primitives have the accent on the last syllable they also have it on their last syllables. As from bátà (child), cabatáan baláy (house), cabalayán. It must be observed also that there are nouns which, thru phonetical variations, have more than one forms. Of such words are the following: báchò, bíchò (groaning) bándoc, búndac (kick) guipic, guipác (broken) guisî, gusî, quisî, cusî (sagged) Panalaron, Palanaron, Planaron (one of the suburbs of the town of Tacloban), [64] piló, lopí (fold) quíróg, coróg (trembling) quirógpos, corógpos (surtout) sitsit, sutsut (whistle) taclap, taplac (blanket), etc. There are also words composed of the same letters but sounding differently and having different meanings thereby, on account of the separation with which some of their syllables are pronounced. As bágo (a tree), bag-o (new) lauay (saliva), lau-ay (repugnance) tagóc (resin), tág-oc (inarticulate voice). bágang (an insect), bág-ang (grinder) bútol (bulky), bút-ol (throat) bulánon (moony), bul’ánon (from Bohol), etc. PRONOUNS There are four classes: personal, demonstrative, possessive, and relative. PERSONAL. They are the following: SINGULAR PLURAL Acó (I) Quitá, camí (we) [65] Icáo, ca, [66] (thou, you) Camó (you) Hiyá, or siyá [67] (he or she) Hirá, or sirá (they) DECLENSION The cases are four; nominative, genitive, objective, and vocative. First person.—Singular. Nominative.— Acó (I) Genitive.— Nácon, [68] ácon, co (of, by me) Objective.— Ha ácon, dácon [69] (to, for, in, at, on, upon, over, under, etc. me) Plural. Nominative,— Camí—quitá. [70] (we) Genitive.— Nímon, ámon—aaton, aton, ta (of, by us) Objective.— Ha ámon, dámon—ha áton, dáton (to, for, etc. us) Second person.—Singular. Nominative.— Icáo, ca (thou, you) Genitive.— Nimo, imo, mo (of, by thee, or you) Objective.— Ha imo, dimo (to, for, etc. thee, or you) Vocative.— Icao (thou, or you) Plural. Nominative.— Camó (you) Genitive.— Niyo, iyo (of, by you) Objective.— Ha iyo, díyo (to, for, etc. you) Vocative.— Camó (you) Third person—Singular. Nominative.— Hiyá (he, or she) Genitive.— Niya, iya (of, by him, or her) Objective.— Ha iya, díya (to, for, etc. him or her) Vocative— Hiyá (He, or she). Plural. Nominative— Hirá (They) Genitive— Nira, ira (of, by them) Objective— Ha ira, dira (to, for etc., them) Vocative— Hirá (they). DEMONSTRATIVE. They have the same forms both for the singular and plural, as follows: adí (this, these, nearer to the speaker than to the listener) ini (this, these) itó (that, those, nearer to the speaker than to the listener, corresponding to the Spanish “ese, esa, eso, esos, esas”) adto (that, those, far from both the speaker and the listener, and corresponding to the Spanish “aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas”). When used before the nouns, they have the particle nga after them; said particle being frequently contracted with the pronun. As adí ng̃a, contracted adín, iní ng̃a, contracted inín, itó ng̃a, contracted itón, ádto ng̃a, contracted ádton. The form itón sometimes takes again the particle ng̃a. So it is said itón ng̃a batâ (that boy or girl). Adí, adto in some places have their variants yadi, yadto. In plural, the particle mga is placed after the preceding combinations; They have two cases: subjective and objective. DECLENSION. Adí.—Singular Subjective— Adí, adí ng̃a, adín (this) Objective— Hadí, hadí ng̃a, hadín, or hadin mg̃a (of, etc. this) Plural. Subjective— Adí, adi ng̃a mg̃a, adín mg̃a (these) Objective— Hadí, hadi ng̃a mg̃a, hadín, or (of, etc., these). hadin mg̃a Iní.—Singular Subjective— Iní, iní ng̃a, inín (this) Objective— Hiní, hiní ng̃a, hinín (of, etc., this) Plural. Subjective— Iní, ini ng̃a mg̃a, inín mg̃a (these) Objective,— Hiní, hini ng̃a mg̃a, hinin mg̃a (of, etc., these). Itó.—Singular. Subjective.— Itó, itó ng̃a, itón, itón ng̃a (that) Objective— Hitó, hitó ng̃a, hitón, hitón, ng̃a (of, etc. that) Plural. Subjective.— Itó, itó ng̃a mg̃a, itón mg̃a, itón (those) ng̃a mg̃a Objective.— Hitó, hitó ng̃a mg̃a, hitón mg̃a, (of, etc., those) hitón ng̃a mg̃a Adto.—Singular. Subjective.— Adto, adto ng̃a, adton (that) Objective.— Hadto, hadto ng̃a, hadton (of, etc., that) Plural. Subjective.— Adto, adto ng̃a mg̃a, adton mg̃a (those) Objective.— Hadto, hadto ng̃a mg̃a, hadton mg̃a (of, etc., those) The forms adton and hadton are frequently used instead of itón, hitón when the object referred to is very close to the listener. Itón is sometimes replaced by the forms hadto and haton. Examples: mopáy adtón hiní (that one is better than this) condî darodacô iní hadton (but this is larger than that) say co hatón (I prefer that one). POSSESSIVE. They are the following: SINGULAR PLURAL acon, co (my, mine) aton, ta, amon (our, ours) imo, mo (thy, thine, your, yours) iyo (your, yours) iya (his or her) ira (their) The forms co, mo, ta are used only after the nouns. The same distinction exists between aton and amon, as between quitá and camí. [71] They have also two cases: subjective, and objective. DECLENSION. Acon.—Singular. Subjective.— Acon, co (my, mine) Objective.— Ha acon, han acon (of, etc., my) Plural. Subjective.— Aton, ta, amon (our, ours) Objective.— Ha aton, han aton, ha amon, han amon (of, etc., our) Imo.—Singular. Subjective.— Imo, mo (thy, thine, your, yours) Objective.— Ha imo, han imo (of, etc., your, thy) Plural. Subjective.— Iyo (your, yours) Objective.— Ha iyo, han iyo (of, etc., your) Iya—Singular. Subjective— Iya (his, her, hers) Objective.— Ha iya, han iya (of, etc., his, her) Plural. Subjective.— Ira (their) Objective.— Ha ira, han ira (of, etc., their) These plurals refer to the subjects possessing. The plural referring to the objects possessed, is formed in each case by using the particle mg̃a, as Acon mg̃a cabogtóan (my brothers or sisters) Iyo mg̃a láuas (your bodies) Ira mg̃a cabalayán (their houses) RELATIVE They are as follows: Ng̃a (that, which) anó (what) bisan anó (whatever) hín’o or sin’o [72] (who) bisan hin’o or bisan sin’o (whoever) háin (which) bisan háin (whichever) These pronouns, except hin’o and bisan hin’o have no inflection for cases. NG̃A. This relative always refers to the subject of the verb. It never relates to the complement. So the sentence: “the house that Peter builds is big”, cannot be translated literally into Bisayan. It is expressed by passive voice. Thus: “an baláy ng̃a guintitindog ni Pedro, dacô”; literally “the house that is being built by Peter is big”, And this: “the book which you gave me yesterday” is translated: “an basahón ng̃a ihinátag mo ha acon cacolóp”; literally “the book which was given by you to me yesterday” This pronoun is indispensable when a substantive is qualified by an adjective, as maópay ng̃a táuo (good man,) not maúpay táuo, bucad ng̃a mahamót (fragrant flower) not bucád mahamot [73] It differs from the conjunction ng̃a (that) in that the pronoun always refers to a noun, never to a verb. NOTE.—This particle ng̃a expresses in some instances the idea of “saying,” “question,” “answer,” etc., as when we say: Ng̃a ni Pedro: “tágui acó hin salapí.” Dáyon batón ni Juan, ng̃a niya: “uaray co salapí.” Peter said: “give me money.” John immediately replied by saying: “I have no money.” Pacanhía hi Guillermo. Ng̃a natón [74] “guinquiquína hang̃lan ca didto.” Make Guillermo come. Tell him: “you are needed there.” When applied to the third person it is frequently combined with the particle laóng̃ as: Násiring̃ hi Pedro, ng̃alaóng̃: “magtotoón aco.” Peter said: “I shall study”. This special idea conveyed by the word ng̃a seems to show in other instances in the Bisayan tongue, as when it is said depreciatively: ¡Ca damò hin im ng̃ang̃a! How many things you ask or talk! where the doubled ng̃a means request or talking. ANÓ. This pronoun has the same use as the English what, except when the latter is used as an objective relative, in which case the said English pronoun is translated by the article an. As when it is said: “What you need is patience, not science,” which is translated: An guinquiquinahang̃lan mo an pag-ílob, dirì hibaró. BISAN ANÓ. Bisan ano means “anything” or “whatever.” Examples: Whatever you do I’ll know it. Bisan ano in buháton mo, hisasabotán co. Give me anything eatable. Tágui aco hin bisan anó ng̃a hacaraón. It is frequently replaced by ano lâ, or anoano lâ. Ex.: Anything you may desire, I’ll give you. Ano lâ ng̃a caruyágon mo, ihahatag co ha imo. You wish to see everything. Anoano lâ buót mo hiquit’an. When it is preceded by an article, it means “which,” as Which horse do you like? ¿An anó ng̃a cabayo in buót mo? HIN’O This relative is only used in the interrogative phrases. It is not employed as the English “who” when this relative serves as “that”. So this phrase “that person who talks is my brother” is translated: “itón tauo ng̃a nagyayácan, acon bugto,” not “itón tauo hin’o nagyayácan, etc.” It has two cases: subjective and objective. DECLENSION SINGULAR PLURAL Subjective— Hin’o (who) Hirá hin’o (who) Objective— Canáy, can (of, etc. Canda canáy (of, etc., canáy whom whose) whom, whose) BISAN HIN’O Bisan hin’o means “whoever” or “anyone”. Example: Whoever is there, let him come. Bisan hin’o in adâ, pacanhía. Anyone knows him. Bisan hin’o náquilála ha iya. It also has two cases: subjective and objective. DECLENSION. SINGULAR PLURAL Subjective.— Bisan hin’o (whoever) Bisan hirá (whoever) hin’o Objective.— Bisan canáy (of, etc., Bisan canda (of etc., whomever) canáy whoever) HAIN. Hain means “which.” Examples: Which of these hats is yours? ¿Háin hiní ng̃a mg̃a calò in imo? Similarly to “ano,” the pronoun “háin” is only used in the interrogative forms, never as ng̃a (that). So the phrase “the book which you saw” is translated “an basahón ng̃a imo quinità” (literally: the book that was seen by you), and not “an basahon háin icao quinmità.” BISAN HÁIN. It is equivalent to the English “whichever,” Examples: Whichever of those books satisfies me. Didâ hitó ng̃a mga basahón bisan háin maopay co. NOTE.—These relatives hain and bisan háin must not be confounded with the adverbs of the same form, háin (where) and bisan háin (wherever). The former refer only to nouns, the latter to verbs. CONTRACTIONS. The pronouns are frequently contracted as follows: acó, ácon, to ac nácon ,, nac dácon ,, dac camí ,, cam quitá ,, quit námon ,, nam ámon ,, am náton ,, nat áton ,, at dámon ,, dam dáton ,, dat icáo ,, ic nímo ,, nim imo ,, im dimo ,, dim camó ,, cam adi ,, ad iní ,, in itó ,, it adín ,, ad itón ,, it hadí ,, had hadín ,, had hiní ,, hin hinín ,, hin hitó ,, hit hitón ,, hit hatón ,, hat ácon ,, ac áton ,, at ámon ,, am imo ,, ini bisan anó ,, bis ano bisan háin ,, bis hain VERBS The verbs may be grouped in the following classes: As to their conjugation: active, passive, negative, interrogative, suppletory, impersonal, defective. As to their inflections: primitive, and progressive. The Active verb represents the subject as acting, as: acó násugò (I order). The Passive verb represents the subject as being acted upon, as: acó sinúsugò (I am ordered). The Negative verb involves a negation, as: ayáo catúrog (do not sleep). The Interrogative verb involves a question, as: ¿diín ca cadto? (where did you go?) The Suppletory verb supplies the lack of all auxiliary and a few other verbs as from ini (this), we have: íiní acó (I am here), to express the verb “to be,” in Bisayan. The Impersonal verb has not a definite subject, as: náurán (it rains). The Defective verb lacks one or more of its principal parts as, iyá (receive it). The Primitive verb is used in its original and simplest form as: acó násurát (I write). The Progressive verb denotes continuance of the action, as: acó nagusurát (I am writing). CONJUGATION VOICES They are active and passive. The passive voice has three classes: direct, indirect, and instrumental. The direct passive is where the subject is the direct object in active voice, as: suratá an acon ng̃aran (write my name; literally: let my name be written by you). The indirect passive is where the subject is an indirect object of the verb in its active voice, as: suratí an imo amáy (write to your father; literally: let a letter be written by you to your father), The instrumental passive is where the subject is the instrument or real object of the action, as: igsurát iní ng̃a pluma (write with this pen; literally: let this pen be used by you in writing.) MOODS AND TENSES There are four moods: infinitive, indicative, imperative, and subjunctive, The infinitive has two tenses: present, and gerund; three in passive voice: present, gerund, and past participle. The indicative has three. The ordinary forms have present, past and future. The irregular forms have present, imperfect past, and past. The imperative and subjunctive, have each one tense: present. Infinitive: The present is frequently used as a noun, as: an pagcáon (the meal). The gerund is frequently used in compound sentences for past tenses, as: han pag-abot co (when I arrived: literally: upon my arriving). The past participle is employed as an adjective as: hinigugma co ng̃a iróy. (my dear mother; literally: mother loved by me). NOTE.—There are in Bisayan forms resembling and equivalent in many instances to the Latin infinitive future ending in rus, in active, and in dus, in passive, as amaturus and amandus. Such Bisayan forms are those formed by the particle um combined with the interfix r or its substitutes (See page 20), as: cumaráon (one who is to eat) caraonón (a thing to be eaten). Indicative. Ordinary forms. The present corresponds to the same tense, in English, and also to the Spanish and Latin imperfect past. As: nácaon acó (I eat) nácaon acó han pag-abot mo (I was eating when you arrived) The past tense represents the English present perfect, and past, indicative mood. As: nagsurát acó (I have written, I wrote) The future corresponds to the English future tense, as: másurat acó (I shall write) Suppletory forms. The present represents the English present and future tenses, indicative. As: He is here: hiyá háhani. He will be here tomorrow: hiyá hahaní buás. The imperfect past and past tense corresponds to the same tense of the Latin and Spanish languages: as didinhi [75] hi Juan han pag-abót co (John was here, when I arrived) Imperative and Subjunctive. The single tense (present) of each of these moods corresponds to the same tense in English, as: cadto búas (go there to-morrow) cun cumadto ca buas, tauága acó (If you go there tomorrow, call me). Observations. 1. The English past perfect, indicative, is supplied in Bisayan by the present tense, indicative, of the potential form which we shall see later. [76] As: han imo pag-abót nacacatima na acó (when you arrived, I had already finished). 2. The English future perfect tense is supplied in Bisayan by the future tense, indicative, of the potential form. As umabút ca ng̃anì macacatima na aco (when you arrive, I shall have finished). 3. The Latin and Spanish imperfect past tense, subjunctive mood, is supplied in Bisayan by the present, subjunctive, and future indicative. As Cun gumican acó niyán, diri co hiya igquiquita buás (If I should go today, I would not meet him tó-morrow). 4. The Latin and Spanish perfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the past tense, indicative. 5. The Latin and Spanish plusquamperfect past tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the past and future (potential) tenses, indicative, respectively. As Cun nagdágmit acó, hinaabután co cunta hiyá (If I had hastened, I should have reached him). 6. The Latin and Spanish imperfect future tense, subjunctive, is supplied in Bisayan by the present subjunctive. 7. And the perfect future tense, subjunctive, of said languages, is supplied in Bisayan by the present, indicative, potential form. NUMBER AND PERSON. There are two numbers: singular and plural. There are three persons: first, second, and third. Except in the imperative, the inflections of the verbs generally do not change, in each tense. However, the progressive and suppletory forms frequently undergo some changes in plural, as acó nagsusurát (I am writing), camí nanunurát (we are writing) INFLECTIONS. The inflections are determined by particles, which are shown in the following tables: (In the tables below, the dash represents the root; the sign (d) means that the first syllable of the root is doubled; s and p mean singular and plural, respectively). TABLE 1 PRIMITIVE ACTIVE Infinitive Present, and gerund: PAG—, s; PANG—, PAM—, PAN—, p Indicative Present: NA— Past: INM—, or —INM— Future: MA— Imperative (the root unaltered) Subjunctive UM—, or —UM— OBSERVATIONS: Infinitive. The present and gerund are formed by the prefix pag, and the root. In the plural, the g of pag undergoes the following changes: When the root begins with a vowel o: with the consonant c, the pag is changed into pang the c then being suppressed. Examples: from “arò” (to ask), pag-arò, pl. pang̃aro. “catúrog” (to sleep), pagcátúrog, pl. pang̃atúrog. If the root commences with a labial consonant, except m, pag is transformed into pam, and then the labial consonant disappears. Examples: from “báyad” (to pay), pagbáyad, pl. pamáyad. “pilì” (to select), pagpilì, pl. pamilì. When the root begins with m, pag is transformed into pan, the m of the root remaining in it. Example: from “múlay” (to teach), pagmúlay, pl. panmúlay. If the root commences with any other consonant, pag is replaced by pan, the said consonant being then suppressed except when it is a g or h. Examples. from “hapon” (to perch), paghápon, pl. panhápon, ,, “gúbat” (to invade), paggúbat, pl. pangúbat, ,, “búao” (to visit), pagdúao, pl. panúno, ,, “tubò” (to grow), pagtubò, pl. panubò, ,, “surát” (to write), pagsurát, pl. panurát. Indicative.—Present. The transformative particle of this tense is the prefix na, which must always be pronounced long, in order not to confound it with the short na of the passive potential form, as it will be seen later. [77] As (long na) nápilì acó (I select) (short na) napílì acó (I was selected). Past.—This tense is determined by the interfix inm placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. When the root commences with a vowel, this particle is simply prefixed to the root. As, from “surát” (to write), “abót” (to arrive) acó sinmurát [78] (I write), inmabót hirá (they arrived) NOTE.—The m of imn is frequently suppressed. As, from “múlay” (to teach), abót (to arrive) ,, minúlay, inábot. Future.—The particle determining this tense is the prefix ma which must be always pronounced long, so as not to confound it with the short ma used among the verbal and derivative nouns. As, (long ma) hiyá mácáon (he or she will eat) (short ma) hiyá macaón (he or she is a glutton) (long) máborong̃ (there will be fog) (short) mabórong̃ (confuse) Imperative.—It is simply the root without any transformative particle. NOTE.—There is a form consisting in doubling the first syllable of the root. But this form is used only in the preceptive language, as when we say: “tauágon ca ng̃anì, bábatón” (whenever you are called, always answer). Subjunctive.—The single tense of this mood is determined by the interfix um which is placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix is added to the beginning as from “arò” (to ask), “umarò,” from “cáon” (to eat) cumáon. Example: Root: surát. Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagsurát } (to write, writing) { plural: panurát } Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó } { I, } | camí quitá } { we } icao } násurat { they, you } write, etc. | camó } násurat { you } write hiyá } { he, she } | hirá } { they } PAST acó, etc. (I, etc. wrote) camí, etc. (we, etc. inmurát sinmurát wrote) FUTURE acó, etc. (I shall, etc. camí, etc. (we shall, etc. másurat write) másurat write) Imperative surát icao (write) sumurát [79] (let us, them camí, hirá write) sumurát[79] (let him or surát quitá, camó (let us, you hiya her write) write) Subjunctive acó, etc. (I may, etc. camí, etc. (we may, etc. sumurát write) sumurát write) TABLE 2. PROGRESSIVE ACTIVE Infinitive. (the same as that of the primitive active) Indicative Present: NAG(d)—, s; NANG(d)—, NA(d)—, or NAN(d)—, p. Past: NAG—, s: NANG—, NA—, or NAN—, p. Future: MAG(d)—, s; MANG(d)—, MA(d)—, or MAN(d)—, p. Imperative. PAG—, s; PANG—, PA—, or PAN—, p. Subjunctive MAG—, s; MANG—, MA—, or MAN—, p. OBSERVATIONS. Infinitive. Its forms are exactly the same as those of the primitive active. Indicative. Present. Its singular is determined by doubling the first syllable [80] of the root, prefixed by nag. Its plural is formed according to the first letter of the root. When the root commences with a vowel, or with the consonant c as arò (to ask) cáon (to eat) the formation takes the following process: ng̃ is added to the beginning of the root, c being suppressed, as ng̃aro, ng̃áon; the first syllable is doubled,[80] as ng̃ang̃aro, ng̃ang̃áon, to which the particle na is prefixed, as nang̃ang̃arò, nang̃ang̃áon, which is the final form. When the root commences with a labial consonant, as báyad (to pay) múlay, (to teach) pili (to select), the formation of the plural is as follows: the first consonant of the root is replaced by m, or not altered if it is an m, as máyad, múlay, mili; then the first syllable is doubled,[80] as mamáyad, mumúlay, mimilí; and the prefix nan is employed, as nanmamáyad, nanmumúlay, nanmimili, the final form. The last n of nan is frequently suppressed, as namamáyad namimili. When the root begins with a dental consonant as dapò (to approach) tábon (to cover) surát (to write) the formation of the plural consists in replacing the first consonant by n, as napó, nabon, nurat, whose first syllable is doubled [81], as nanapo, nanabon, nunurat, to which the particle na is prefixed as nanánapó, nanánabon, nanúnurat, the final form. If the root commences with any other consonant, the plural is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root, and by prefixing the particle nan to the root so transformed. Examples: from hugas (to wash), nanhuhugas. lohód (to kneel down), nanlolohod. rabot (to pull), nanrarabot. Past. The singular is formed by adding to the root the prefix nag. The plural is formed exactly as the plural present, except in that the first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled. Future.—The formation of this tense is the same, both in singular and plural, as that of the present, except in that the prefixes used here are mag, ma, man, mang, instead of nag, na, nan, nang. Imperative.—In singular, the prefixes pag and mag are employed. In plural, the prefixes, pa, pan, pang, ma, man, mang, are used in the same way and cases as the prefixes na, nan, nang, in the present indicative. Subjunctive.—It is formed in the same way as the future indicative, except in that the first syllable of the root is not doubled here. Root: surát (write) Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagurát } (to be writing, being { plural: panurat } writing) Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc., (I am, etc. | camí, etc. (we are, etc. nagsusurát writing) | nanunurát writing) | PAST | acó, etc. (I was, etc. | camí etc. (we were, etc. nagsurát writing) | nanurát writing) | FUTURE | acó, etc. (I shall, etc. | camí, etc., (we shall, etc. magsusurát be writing) | manunurát be writing) | Imperative | | pagsurát icao (be writing) | panurát quita, (let us, you be | camó writing) magsurát hiya (let him or her | manurát camí, (let us, them be be writing) | hirá writing) | Subjunctive | | acó etc. magsurát (I may, etc. be | camí, etc. (we may, etc. be writing) | manurát writing) TABLE 3 PRIMITIVE DIRECT PASSIVE Infinitive Present, and gerund: PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p Past participle: IN—, or —IN— Indicative Present: IN(d)—, or —IN(d)— Past: IN—, or —IN—. Future: (d)—ON. Imperative —A. Subjunctive —ON. Infinitive. The present and gerund are determined in singular by the prefix pag and the affix á. Pag is used as in the active voice. The affix a is accented (if the last syllable of the root is accented) and simply appended to the root prefixed by pag. This affix is sometimes ha. The use of a or ha follows the same rules established for the use of the affixes an and han (See page 15 of this book). In plural the prefixes pang, pam, pan, are employed in combination with the affix a. The said prefixes are used in same way as their similar in the primitive active. (See page 62 of this book). The past participle is formed by the interfix in placed between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If this begins with a vowel the in is prefixed to the root. As from “cáon” (to eat), quináon (eaten) ,, “inóm” (to drink), ininóm (drunk) Indicative.—Present. This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by then placing in it (after doubling the said first syllable) the interfix in, in a similar way as in the past participle. (See the preceding observution). As, from cáon, quinacáon ,, inóm, iníinóm [82] Past.—The formation of this tense is exactly the same as that of the past participle seen above. Future.—This tense is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and appending to it the affix on. As from “caón,” cácaónon ,, “inóm,” iinomón, contracted iinmon. Imperative.—The single form of this mode, consists in the root appended by the affix “á.” It must be observed that this affix “á” in the imperative bears the idea that the order or command is always directed to the second person or first plural, If such order or command is directed to some other person, not to the second, or first (quitá) plural then the subjunctive is used. As higugmaá an Dyos (love God; lit.: let God be loved by you) higugmaá ta an catadúng̃an (let us love justice; lit.: let justice be loved by us). higugmaón nira an igcasitáuo (let them love the fellow-man: lit.: let the fellowman be loved by them). The last form is also frequently used for the second person, singular and plural, and for the first person, plural. As higugmaón mo an Dyos (love God) higugmaón niyo, etc. higugmaón námon, etc. higugmaón ta, etc. Subjunctive. The single form of this mode consists in the root appended by the affix on, as it is seen in the preceding examples. Example: Root: surát Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratá } (to be written, being. { plural: panuratá } written) Past participle: sinurát (written) Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. (I am, etc. | camí, etc. (we are, etc. sinúsurat written) | sinúsurat written) | PAST | acó, etc. sinurát (I was, etc. | camí, etc. (we were, etc written) | sinurát written) | FUTURE | acó, etc. (I shall, etc. | camí, etc. (we shall, etc susuratón be written) | susuratón be written) Imperative suratá acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hírá (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you them he written by you) Subjunctive acó, etc. (I may, etc. camú, etc. (we may, etc. be suratón written) suratón written) TABLE 4. PROGRESSIVE DIRECT PASSIVE. Infinitive. Present, and gerund: PAG—A, s; PANG—A, PAM—A, PAN—A, p. Past participle: GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p. Indicative Present: GUIN(d)—, s; PIN(d)—, PINAN(d)—, p. Past: GUIN—, s; PINA—, PINAN—, p. Future: PAG(d)—ON, s; PA(d)—ON, PAN(d)—ON, p. Imperative PAG—A, s; PA—A, PAN—A, p. Subjunctive PAG—ON, s; PA—ON, PAN—ON, p. OBSERVATIONS. Infinitive. Present and gerund. The singular is formed by the root prefixed by pag and affixed by a. In plural the prefixes pa, pan, or pang are employed in the same cases as those mentioned for the use of nang nam, and na of the present tense, indicative, of the progressive form, active voice. [83] The past participle is formed by the prefix guin added to the root. Indicative. Present. In singular the first syllable is doubled, [84] and the prefix guin is employed. In plural the prefix pina is used and the root is transformed exactly in the same way as the plural, present tense, indicative; of the progressive form active voice. [85] Past. The same as the present, except in that the first syllable of the root transformed is not doubled. Future. Its singular is formed by the prefix pag, added to the root whose first syllable is doubled, [86] and by the affix on. Its plural is formed by the prefix pa, pang or pam and the root transformed in the same way as in the use of na nang or nam and as the trasformation of the root in the plural, present tense, indicative of the progressive form, active voice. [87] Imperative. It consists in the root prefixed by pag and affixed by a. We reproduce here the observation made on the imperative, primitive form, direct passive. [88] Subjunctive. Its singular is formed by the root prefixed by pag and affixed by on. Its plural consists in the use of pa pang or pam in the same way as in the plural, present tense indicative, progressive form, active voice, [89] and of the affix on. Example: Root: surát Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagsurátá } (to be written, being { plural: panuratá } written) Past participle: guiusurát s.; pinanunurát p. (written). Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. (I am, etc. | camí, etc. (we are, etc. guinsusurát being written) | pinanunurát being written) | PAST | acó, etc. (I was, etc. | camí etc. (we were, etc. guinsurát being written) | pinanurát being written) | FUTURE | acó, etc. (I shall be, | camí, etc. (we shall be, pagsusuratón etc. being | panunuratón etc. being written) | written) Imperative Pagsuratá acó, icao, hiya, camí, hira (let me, you, him or her, us, you, them be being written). Subjunctive acó, etc. (I may be, etc. camí, etc. (we may be, etc. pagsuratón being written) panuratón being written) TABLE 5 PRIMITIVE INDIRECT PASSIVE Infinitive. Present, and gerund: PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p. Past participle: —IN—AN, or IN—AN Indicative. Present: IN(d)—AN, or —IN(d)—AN Past: —IN—AN, or IN—AN Future: (d)—AN Imperative. —I Subjunctive. —AN OBSERVATION: Infinitive. Present and gerund. This form consists in the root transformed by the affix i, and by the prefix pag in singular, and pang, pan, or pa in plural, according to the rules above established for the use of these prefixes. [90] Past participle,—This form consists in the root transformed by the interfix in and the affix an. The use of the interfix in follows the same rules as those hereinbefore established for the said interfix. [91] Indicative.—Present. This tense is determined by doubling the first syllable of the root, and then (after the said first syllable being doubled) by placing the interfix in between the first consonant and the first vowel of the root. If the root begins with a vowel, the interfix in is prefixed to the root whose first syllable has been already doubled. Past.—This tense has the same form as the past participle. Future.—The form of this tense consists in doubling the first syllable of the root and by appending to it the affix an. Imperative. Its form consists in the root appended by the affix i. The same observation is made here, as that on the imperative of the primitive direct passive. [92] Subjunctive. It’s form is the root appended by the affix an. Example: Root: surát Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratí } (to be addressed with a { plural: panuratí } letter, being addressed with a letter) [93] Past participle: sinuratán (addressed with a letter) Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. (I am, etc. | camí, etc. (we are, etc. sinusuratán addressed with a | sinusuratán addressed with a letter) | letter) | PAST | acó, etc. (I was, etc. | camí, etc. (we are, etc. sinuratán addressed with a | sinuratán addressed with a letter) | letter) | FUTURE | acó, etc. (I shall be, etc. | camí, etc. (we shall be, susuratán addressed with a | susuratán etc. addressed letter) | with a letter) Imperative uratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quita, camó, hirá (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be addressed with a letter) Subjunctive acó, etc. (I may be, etc. camí, etc. (we may be, etc. suratán addressed with a suratán addressed with a letter) letter) TABLE 6. PROGRESSIVE INDIRECT PASSIVE Infinitive Present and gerund: PAG—I, s; PAN—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p. Past participle: GUIN—AN. Indicative Present: GUIN(d)—AN, s; PINA(d)—AN, PINAN(d)—AN, PINANG(d)—AN, p. Past: GUIN—AN, s; PINA—AN, PINAN—AN, PINANG—AN, p. Future: PAG(d)—AN, s: PA(d)—AN, PAN(d)—AN, PANG(d)—AN, p. Imperative PAG—I, s; PA—I, PAN—I, PANG—I, p. Subjunctive PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p. OBSERVATIONS. Infinitive.—Present, and gerund. Their single form is the same as their corresponding primitive form indirect passive. Past participle. It is distinguished by the prefix guin. Indicative.—Present, singular. The first syllable of the root is doubled [94] and the affix guin added. Its plural is formed as its corresponding in the progressive direct passive, except in that here the affix an is added. [95] Past.—The forms of this tense are the same as those of their corresponding form in the progressive direct passive, except in that here the affix an is added. [96] Future.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix an is used here instead of on. Imperative.—The same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix i is used here instead of a. Subjunctive—Also the same as that of the progressive direct passive, except in that the affix an is here used instead of on. Example: Root: surát Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratí } { plural: panuratí } Past participle: guinsurát Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. guinsusuratán | camí, etc. pinanunuratán | PAST | acó, etc. guinsuratán | camí, etc. pinanunuratán | FUTURE | acó, etc. pagsusuratán | camí, etc. panunuratán Imperative pagsuratí acó, icáo, hiyá, camí, quitá, camó, hirá Subjunctive acó, etc. pagsuratán camí, etc. panuratán TABLE 7 PRIMITIVE INSTRUMENTAL PASSIVE. Infinitive. Present, and gerund: PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p. Past participle: I—IN—, IIN— Indicative Present: I—IN(d)—, IIN(d)— Past: I—IN—, IIN— Future: I(d)— Imperative I— —AN Subjunctive I— OBSERVATIONS: Infinitive, Present, and gerund. The same observation is made as that on the same tenses of the primitive, active, with the addition that here the affix an is appended to the root. Past participle. It is formed by the prefix i and the interfix in. If the root commences with a vowel, the prefix and the interfix are joined, as from “arò” (to ask), iinarò. Indicative.—Present, past. They are the same as the present and past tenses indicative of the primitive direct passive, with the addition of the prefix i. Future.—It is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root and by using the prefix i. As isusurát, iaaro. Imperative.—The first form consists in prefixing to the root the particle i. The second form consists in affixing to the root the particle an. Subjunctive. It consists in prefixing to the root the particle i. NOTE.—The instrumental passive is also employed to express substitution; as when we say in English: Read this word for me: ibása acó hiní ng̃a polong̃ (literally: let me be substituted by you in reading this word). Example: Root: surát Infinitive Present and gerund { singular: pagsuratán } (to be used in writing, { plural: panuratán } being used in writing) Past participle: isinurát: used in writing Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. (I am, etc. used | camí, etc. (we are, etc. isinusurát in writing) | isinusurát used in writing) | PAST | acó, etc. (I was, etc. used | camí, etc. (we are, etc. isinurát in writing) | isinurát used in writing) FUTURE | | acó, etc. (I shall etc. be, | camí, etc. (we shall etc. isusurát used in writing) | isusurát be, used in | writing) Imperative isurát or suratán acó, icao, hiya, camí, quitá, camó hira (let me, thee, you, him, her, us, you, them be used in writing). Subjunctive acó, etc. (I may etc. be, | camí, etc. (we may etc. be, isurát used in writing) | isurát used in writing) TABLE 8. PASSIVE PROGRESSIVE INSTRUMENTAL Infinitive Present and gerund: PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p. Past participle: IGUIN— Indicative Present: IGUIN(d)—, s; IPINA(d)—, IPINAN(d)—, IPINANG(d)—, p. Past: IGUIN—, s; IPINA—, IPINAN—, IPINANG—, p. Future: IG(d)—, s: IPA(d)—, IPAN(d)—, IPANG(d)—, p. Imperative PAG—AN, s; PA—AN, PAN—AN, PANG—AN, p. IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p. Subjunctive IG—, s; IPA—, IPAN—, IPANG—, p. OBSERVATIONS: The observations made on the conjugation of the progressive direct passive are applied to the above conjugation except in that the present, and gerund take the affix an, and that the past participle, the present, and past indicative, and the subjunctive, plural, take the prefix i, and in that the imperative has the affix an, and the subjunctive singular the affix on, and the future, imperative, and subjunctive have a g after the prefix i. Example: Root: surat Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagsuratán } { plural: panuratán } Past participle: iguinsurát. Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. iguinsusurát. | camí, etc. ipinanunurát | PAST | acó, etc. iguinsurát | camí, etc. ipinanurát | FUTURE | acó, etc. igsusurát | camí, etc. ipanunurat Imperative Pagsaratán or igsarát acó, icáo, hiyá. Panoratán or ipaanrát camí, quitá, camó, hirá. Subjunctive acó, etc. igsurát. camí, etc. ipaaurát. NEGATIVE FORMS These forms consist in employing the adverbs “diri” before the inflections of the infinitive, present and future indicative, and subjunctive; “uaráy” before the past indicative, and “ayáo” before the imperative. As to the inflections of the root, they are the same as those of the corresponding; affirmative except the past indicative, which always takes the inflections of the imperative. Example: Negative Primitive Active. Root: surát Indicative. Present, and gerund { singular: diri pagsurát } (not to write, { plural: diri panurat } not writing) Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL diri acó, etc. (I do not, etc. | diri camí, etc. (we do not, násurát write) | násurát etc. write) | PAST | uaráy acó, etc. (I did not, | uaráy camí, (we did not, surát etc. write) | etc. surát etc. write) | FUTURE | diri acó, etc. (I shall not, | diri camí, etc. (we shall not, másarát etc. write) | másurat etc. write) Imperative ayáo surát icáo, quitá, camó (let you, us not write) diri sumurát hiyá, camí, hirá (let him, us, them not write) Subjunctive diri acó, etc. (I may not, etc. | diri camí, etc. (we may, etc. sumurát write) | sumurát not write) NOTE.—The past consists sometimes, among the primitive forms, in the root having the first syllable doubled; and among the progressive forms, it consists in the prefix pag and the root whose first syllable is doubled. In plural, the pag undergoes the same changes as in the active conjugation. Examples: uaráy acó susurát (I did not write) uaráy acó pagsusurát (I did not write) Negative Progressive Active. Root: surát Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: diri pagsurát } (not to be writing, { plural: diri panurát } not being writing) Indicative PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL diri acó, etc. (I am, etc. not | diri camí, etc. (we are, etc. nagsusurát writing) | nanunurát not writing) | PAST | uaráy acó etc. (I was etc. not | uaráy camí etc. (we were etc. pagsurát writing) | panurát not writing) | FUTURE | diri acó etc. (I shall etc. | diri camí, etc. (we shall not, magsusurát not be writing) | manunurát etc. be | writing) Imperative ayao icao (do not be | ayao quitá, camo (let us, you, not pagsurát writing) | panurát be writing) diri hiya (let him not be | diri camí, hirá (let us, them not magsurát writing) | manurát be writing) Subjunctive diri acó, etc. (I may, etc. not | diri camí, etc. (we may, etc. magsurát be writing) | manurát not be writing) INTERROGATIVE FORMS They are determined by the phrases “cay anó” (why), and by “diín”, “háín” (where), and by “san-o”, “cacan-o” (when, past and future respectively). CAY ANO The interrogative conjugation by this phrase simply consists in the regular conjugation of the verb, placing before every inflection the said phrase followed by the particle ng̃a. As ¿cay anó ng̃a nasurat ca? (why do you write?) ¿cay anó ng̃a sinmurát hiya? (why did he or she write?) ¿cay anó ng̃a macadto quita? (what shall we go there for?) etc. DIIN, HAIN. The interrogative primitive formed; by these adverbs, has only two inflections: one which consists in the original root, and which is the past tense indicative; and the other which consists on the same root, its first syllable being doubled; this last form is for the present and future tenses, indicative. These three tenses are the only tenses that this conjugation has. The adverb “diín” is for the present and past tenses. The adverb “háin” is for the future. Thus: Present: ¿diin acó susurat? (where do I write?) Past: ¿diin ca surát? (where did you write?) Future: ¿háin camí susurát? (where shall we write?) The interrogative progressive only differs from the preceding one in that the particle pag precedes all of the inflections. In plural this pag becomes pa, pan, or pang, according to the same rules laid on the progressive active form. [97] Thus: ¿diín ca pagsusurát? (where are you writing?) ¿háin camó panunurát? (where will you be writing?) In passive voices, these same forms are followed except in that the root takes the affix a in the direct passive and the affix i in the indirect passive, and the prefix i for the primitive form, or the prefix ig for the progressive form, in the instrumental passive. Thus: ¿diín suratá? ¿diín suratí?, etc. NOTE.—Instead of the prefix ig or i, in the instrumental passive, the affix an is frequently employed. As ¿diín susuratán? for ¿diín isusurát? etc. CACAN-O SAN-O “Cacan-o” is placed before the past indicative; “san-o” is used before the future, indicative. They are the only two tenses of this kind of conjugation. As to the inflections in the primitive form, the past is simply the root, and the future is the root, whose first two letters are doubled. As ¿cacan-o camo surat? (when did you write?) ¿san-o ca cácanhi? (when will you come?) In the progressive form the root takes the prefixes pag for the singular and pa, pan, pang in plural. In the passive, the affix a is used in the direct passive; the affix i, in the indirect passive; and the prefix i or ig in the instrumental. These prefixes are frequently replaced by the affix an. Examples: ¿cacan-o surata? ¿Ban-o susuratí? etc IMPORTANT OBSERVATION. The verb referred to by any adverb of time takes the same form, as to the indicative, as the adverbs cacan-o and san-o. As buás acó cacanhi (tomorrow I shall come) canina han ága acó pagsurát (this morning I have written) [98] SUPPLETORY VERBS Irregular conjugation The suppletory verbs in Bisayan are those formed by the pronouns “iní”, “adí”, “itó”, “itón”, “adtó”, “adtón”; to supply the English “to be”, and those formed by the adverbs “dinhi”, “didi”, “dida”, “dídton”, “díthon”, “dídto”, to supply the same verb “to be” and also the verbs “to come”, and “to go.” Of these verbs we call pronominal those derived from pronouns, and adverbial those derived form adverbs. PRONOMINAL FORM. This is a defective form, as it has only one inflection which consists in doubling the first vowel it being for the present tense, indicative mood. Ex.: iini acó (I am here) aadí camí (we are here) iito hiya (he or she is there) iiton hira (they are there) aadto ca (you are there) aadton camo (you are there) NOTE. In same places of Leyte, as Dulag, these forms are not used but instead of them, the pronouns are doubled as: iniini, adiadi, itoito, etc. In using these forms it is preferable to have the pronouns follow them. ADVERBIAL FORM. This conjugation is common to the adverbs dínhi, didí, didto, dithon, didto. Root: dinhi (here) Infinitive Present, and gerund { singular: pagdinhi } (to be here, being here) { plural: paninhi } Indicative PRESENT, AND FUTURE SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. aanhi or (I am, etc. | camí, etc. (we are, etc. hahaní shall be, etc. | aanhi or shall be, etc. here) | hahani here) Imperfect past, and past. acó, etc. didinhi or (I was, etc. | camí etc. (we were, etc. nacanhi here) | didinhi or here) | nacanhi Imperative dinhi icao, etc. (be here, etc). Subjunctive acó, etc. maanhi (I may etc. be | camí, etc. maanhi (we may, etc. or mahani here) | or mahani be here) OBSERVATIONS. Infinitive.—Present and gerund. Here the particles pag and pan are employed in the same way as among the primitive active voice [99]. As SINGULAR PLURAL pagdinhi paninhi pagdidí panidí pagdidâ panidâ pagdidton panidton pagdithon panithon pagdidto panidto. Indicative.—Present and future. It is formed by replacing the first two letters of the root with the prefix a doubled. As from dinhi aanhi, ,, didí aadí ,, didâ aadâ ,, didton aadton ,, dithon aathon ,, didto aadto NOTE.—The form hahani is the transformation of aanhi, where the h is doubled and transposed by placing each h before each a. The other pronouns have not such a form. Imperfect past and past. Their single form consists in doubling the first two letters of the root, as from dinhi dídinhi ,, didi dídidi ,, didâ dididâ ,, didton dídidton ,, dithon dídíthon ,, didto dídidto [100] Imperative.—It simply consists in the root. Subjunctive.—It has two forms. The first consists in in prefixing to the root the particle ma; the second form consists in replacing the first two letters of the root with the prefix maa. As from dinhi, madínhi, maánhi ,, didí. madidí, maadí ,, didâ, madidâ maadâ ,, didton, madidton, mandton ,, dithon, madithon, maathon ,, didto, madidto, maadto. NOTE—The form mahani is a transformation of maanhi like hahani of aanhi. The verbs that supply the English “to come” and “to go” are conjugated as ordinarily. But they have a basis for conjugation, derived from the original root, and which we call conjugational root. So from the original roots dinhi, didí, didá, didton, dithon, didto, we have the corresponding conjugational roots: cánhi, cadi, cadá, cadton, cathon, cádto. The form followed in this conjugation is that of a primitive. Thus from the root “canhi”, we have: Infinitive, present and present participle: pagcanhi (to come, coming) NOTE.—But the plural of this tense is irregular. It is pagpacánhi (to come, coming, plural). Indicative present: acó, etc., nácanhi. ,, past: acó, etc., quinmánhi. ,, future: acó, etc., mácanhi. Imperative: cánhi, etc. Subjunctive: acó, etc. cumánhi. NOTE. The past, indicative, and the present, subjunctive, have the irregular forms, nacanhi and macanhi respectively, which must not be confounded with the present and future, indicative, as the accent of the former in past and subjunctive is on the penult and not on the first syllable as in the present and future indicative. OBSERVATION. We have seen that when the verb “to be” refers to a place it is frequently expressed in Bisayan either, by the pronominal form or by the adverbial form. But when the verb “to be” is equivalent to the Spanish “estar”, i.e., when it represents state, situation, or contingent condition, it is then expressed by the particles pag, nag, ma, na added to the words which are predicate of “to be” in English. As I shall be sorry: magmamabidò acó. In cases where the verb “to be” needs to be represented by an independent word, the expressions “amo”, “asya”, “asáy”, “say” (which express identity, rather than a mere essence, substance or existence) are frequently employed. As { Hi Pedro ámo an tag-iya hiní ng̃a { baláy Peter is the owner of this house { hi Pedro asya an tag-iya, etc. { hi Pedro asáy tag-iya, etc. { hi Pedro say tag-iya, etc. In other cases, the verb “to be” is not translated into Bisayan. As God is omnipotent: an Dyos macagagáhum. IMPERSONAL VERBS The impersonal verbs follow the two forms: primitive, and progressive. Owing to the fact that the Bisayan tongue has indirect and instrumental passive, all of the verbs, no matter to what class they belong, have passive voice. So the intransitive verbs of other languages have passive voice in Bisayan, The same thing happens to the impersonal verbs. They have indirect and instrumental passives which are complete in their conjugation. Thus, in passive, there is no impersonal verb in Bisayan. The forms of conjugation of this kind of verbs are the same as those of the regular verbs. Examples: nagdadalogdog (it thunders) nagiinuran (it rains persistently) inuuranán hirá (the rain falls on them; literally: they are rained) etc. DEFECTIVE VERBS The following belong to such class: may (to have) which has only, one form. á (no, I do not wish) iyá (receive it) ohò (look at it) May is also used as impersonal and then it means “there, is, there was, etc.”; conó (he or she says or said; they say or said;—it is said, it was said) ambót (I do not know) The English “to have” is also expressed in Bisayan by the root may-adà, whose irregular conjugation as follows: Infinitive Present, and gerund: pagcaada or pagcamay-adà (to have) PRESENT SINGULAR | PLURAL acó, etc. may ada (I etc. have) | camí, etc. may (we, etc. or nagcacaada. | adá or have) | nangagcacaada PAST | acó, etc. nagcaada (I, etc. had) | camí, etc. (we, etc. | nangagcaada had) FUTURE | acó etc. magcacadá (I shall, etc. | camí, etc. (we shall, have) | mangacacaada etc. have) Imperative pacaadá Subjunctive magcaadá NOTE 1. The strict meaning of the form may-ada is “to acquire”, rather than “to have”, for which the defective may is used. 2. The impersonal and defective may is very frequently joined to verbs in passive voice, it keeping its impersonal character. As May naquita co nga bucad (I saw a flower; literally: There is a flower seen by me), its regular order being: may bucad nga naquíta co. May tinagan co hin salapi (I gave money to someone; literally: there is some one given by me with money);—where the words “tauo nga” are tacit, the regular form being: May tauo nga tinagan co hin salapi. OTHER CLASSES OF VERBS There are other kinds of verbs whose distinguishing character consists in their conjugational roots. They are always derived from the ordinary verbs, but bear different meaning, although conjugated as ordinarily. The conjugational roots in active voice are different from those in passive. From the original root SURAT we have the following classes: ACTIVE VOICE Conjugational root Indicative Present Classes sinurat nagsisinurat CONTINUATIVE casurat nacacasurát ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL cagsurat nacacagsurát RELATIVE POTENTIAL isusúrat náisusurat ABSOLUTE APTATIVE ipagsusúrat náipagsusurat RELATIVE APTATIVE pagpasurát nápasurát ABSOLUTE PERMISSIVE papagsúrat napapagsurát RELATIVE PERMISSIVE papágsurat pinasusurát ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE papagsurát pinapagsurát RELATIVE IMPERATIVE susúrat nasusúrat IMPREMEDITATIVE suratsúrat nasuratsúrat ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE suratsurát nágsusuratsúrat RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE suratsurát násuratsurát ABSOLUTE REPETITIVE suratsurát nagsusuratsurát RELATIVE REPETITIVE pasuratsúrat nagpapasuratsurat RECIPROCATE From the original root “hadì,” we have pacahádi napacaháhì IMITATIVE From the original root “buság,” we have pagticabusag náticabusag ABSOLUTE GRADUAL pagticabusag nagtiticabusag RELATIVE GRADUAL From the original root “sayáo,” we have sayáo nagsasayáo FIGURATIVE As it may be observed above, one original root may give a great number of different classes of verbs, as the nature of the root and use may permit. The subdivision absolute and relative of these classes corresponds exactly to the primitive and progressive forms already explained. The continuative is distinguished, in its conjugational root, by the interfix in and it expresses persistence of the action. As nagtitinóoc an batà (the child is crying persistently) The potential is determined, in its conjugational roots, by the prefix paca or pacag (absolute and relative) and it means ability on the part of the subject to execute the action expressed by the original root. As dirì hiyá nacacasurát, cay dirí (he cannot write, because does not maaram know how to) dirì hiyá nacacagsurát, cay damò (he cannot write, because he is in buhat busy) The optative has, in its conjugational root the prefix i or ipag (absolute and relative), and it represents the idea of desire. The absolute means a desire about to be executed; the relative signifies a mere intention; As náilalacat na hiyá han ac (he was about to depart when I met pag-abotá him) naipagsusurat acó ha imo (I was intending to write you) When the absolute optative bears the particle ca, it expresses then proximate passivity, as naicahorológ an bung̃a (the fruit is about to fall) The permissive is distinguished in its conjugational root by the prefix pagpa or papag (absolute and relative) and it means leave or abandonment. As diri hiya napaútang hin (he does not lend any money; literally: he salapí does not permit any money to be lent) When the original root of this form is a substantive referring to a place, then the idea of “going” or “coming” is represented. As mapa Manila camí (we shall go to Manila) napahorón hi Juan (John went to the farm) The imperative, which means order or command, is determined by the prefix papag and the interfix in. As pinacacadto ca (you are ordered to go there) pinapagtoón camo (you are commanded to study) The impremeditative is determined by the repetition of the first syllable of the original root, and expresses a sudden and inconsiderate action. As náyayácan ca lá (you talk inconsiderately) The formation of the diminutive class follows that of a diminutive noun. [101] As nagtatanomtanom cami hin camote (we are cultivating a little camote) The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive. The repetitive has the same formation as the diminutive, except in that the accent is always on the last syllable of the repetitive. It follows the formation of the figurative nouns,[101] when the root has more than two syllable, or when the last syllable is preceded by more than one consonant or is pronounced separately from the preceding consonant. The repetitive expresses a repeated action. As magtatanomtanóm acó hin abacá (I shall cultivate hemp again) macarocánhi acó buás (I shall come again to-morrow) The reciprocate is formed exactly as the diminutive, except in that the reciprocate uses the prefix pa. It means a mutual action. As nagpapasuratsurat camí (we are writing to each other) It is also formed by the prefixes pag and ig, and the affix an. As “pagquítáan (to meet), iguinquiquita iguinhihisugat”. It has a passive character. The imitative is formed by the prefix paca, the same as the absolute potential, but here the root is always a noun, the object of the imitation. As hiyá napacamaáram (he pretends to be learned) hiyá napacacatsilà (he affects to be a Spaniard) The gradual is determined by the prefix pagtica, and means an action by degrees. As nagtiticapasò inin adlao (the day is becoming hotter) nagtiticalamrag an bulan (the moon is becoming brighter) The figurative verb has the same form as its original, except in the accent which is always on the last syllable. As nagsasayáo hiyá tung̃ud han (he jumps as if he was dancing, on caol-ol account of the pain he feels) DIRECT PASSIVE CONTINUATIVE VERB Conjugational root: sinúrat Infinitive: present and gerund: pagsinurata s; pagpinanuráta p. Indicative: Present: guinsisinúrat s; guinpipinanúrat p. Past: guinsinúrat s; guinpinanurat p. Future: pagsisinuraton s; pagpipinanuraton p. Imperative: pagsinuráta s; pagpinanuráta p. Subjunctive: pagsinuraton s; pagpinanuraton p. ABSOLUTE POTENTIAL Conjugational root: hisurát Infinitive: paghisurát s; panhisurát p. Indicative: Present: nahasusurát Past: nahasurát Future: mahasusurát Imperative: (no imperative) Subjunctive: mahasurát. RELATIVE POTENTIAL Conjugational root: hisurát Infinitive: paghisurát s; panhisurát p. Indicative: Present: nahapapagsurát s; nanhihisurát p. Past: nahapagsurát s; nanhisurát p. Future: mahapapagsurát s; manhihisurát p. Imperative: (no imperative) Subjunctive: mahapagsurát s; manhisurát p. ABSOLUTE OPTATIVE Conjugational root: isusurat Infinitive: pag-isusurata s; pag-ipanunurata p. Indicative: Present: guin-iisusurat Past: guin-isusurat. Future: pag-iisusuraton. Imperative: pagisusurata Subjunctive: pag-isusuráton. RELATIVE OPTATIVE Conjugational root: isusúrat Infinitive: pag-ipagsusurata s; pag-ipanunuráta p. Indicative: Present: guin-iipagsusurat, s; guin-iipanunurat. Past: guin-ipagsusurat s; guin-ipanunurat. Future: pag-iipagsusuráton s; pag-iipanunuraton. Imperative: pag-ipagsusurata Subjunctive: pag-ipagsusuraton. (The permissive verbs have no passive) ABSOLUTE IMPERATIVE Infinitive: papagsuratán s; papanuratán p. Indicative: Present: ipinasusurat. Past: ipinasurat. Future: ipasusurat. Imperative: ipasurát. Subjunctive: ipasurát. RELATIVE IMPERATIVE Conjugational root: pasurát Infinitive: papagsuratán, s; papanuratán, p. Indicative: Present: ipinápagsurát, s; ipinápanurát, p. Past: ipinapagsurát, s; ipinapanurát, p. Future: ipápagsurát, s; ipápanurát, p. Imperative: ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p. Subjunctive: ipapagsurát, s; ipapanurát, p. IMPREMEDITATIVE Conjugational root: susuráta Infinitive: pagsusuráta, s; panunuráta, p. Indicative: Present: sinususurat. Past: sinusurát. Future: sususuráton. Imperative: susuráta. Subjunctive: susuráton. ABSOLUTE DIMINUTIVE Conjugational root: sinuratsúrat Infinitive: pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p. Indicative: Present: sinusuratsúrat, Past: sinuratsúrat. Future: susuratsuraton. Imperative: suratsurata. Subjunctive: suratsuráton. RELATIVE DIMINUTIVE Conjugational root: guinsuratsúrat Infinitive: pagsuratsuratá, s; panuratsúrata, p. Indicative: Present: guinsusuratsurat, s; pinanunuratsurat, p. Past: guinsuratsurat, s; pinanuratsurat, p. Future: pagsusuratsuraton, s; panunuratsuratón, p. Imperative: pagsuratsuráta, s; panuratsuráta, p. Subjunctive: pasuratsuraton, s; panusatsuráton, p (The repetitive have the same form as the diminutive) (The reciprocate have no passive) (The imitative, gradual and figurative have no passive) INDIRECT PASSIVE The indirect passive is similar to the ordinary progressive indirect passive (see page 76), except in that in the continuative form the interfix in is used. The potential have no indirect passive. The optative have their indirect passive as that of the ordinary form (see page 73 et seq.), as to the affixes. The imperative have no indirect passive. The impremeditative has its indirect passive the same as that of the primitive indirect passive (see page 74) as to the affixes. The indirect passive of the diminutive is the same as that of the ordinary, primitive (See page 78 et seq) as to the affixes. INSTRUMENTAL PASSIVE. The instrumental passive of the continuative impremeditative and diminutive verbs is similiar to that of the progressive (page 79 and 80) as to the prefixes. The other verbs above mentioned have not instrumental passive. NOTE. There are other classes of verbs formed by other particles and combinations; but their conjugation will be of no difficulty if the different forms hereinbefore given are thoroughly mastered. DEPRECATIVE VERBS There are verbs used in a depreciative tone. Examples. for cáon (to eat) ásoc, lámon, etc. ,, lacát (to walk) laág ,, yacán (to talk) yaquimbot, etc. These verbs are conjugated as ordinarily. ADVERBS The adverbs are of the following classes: ADVERBS OF PLACE DIIN (where),—BISAN DIIN (wherever, anywhere),—DIDI (here, nearer to the speaker then to the listener),—DINHI (here),—DIDÂ (there, nearer to the listener than to the speaker),—DIDTO (there),—HARANI (near),—HARAYÒ (far). ADVERBS OF TIME CACAN-O (when, past),—SAN-O (when, future),—BISAN CACAN-O (whenever, past),—BISANSAN-O (whenever, future),—NIYÁN (now),—CANINA (before, short time ago, in the same day),—CAGAB’I (last night),—CACOLÓP (yesterday),—CASANGAB’I (the night before last),—CASANGCOLOP (the day before yesterday),—CASANGYADTO (the day previous to the day before yesterday),—ANAY (before, anciently),—UNINA (after, in the same day),—BUAS (to-morrow),—ISANGBUÁS (the day after to-morrow),—ISANGYÁDTO (the day following the day after to-morrow),—CANONAY (always),—DAYÓ-DAY (persistently),—LAYON (soon),—DÁYON (immediately),—HADTO (then, before),—NG̃ANÌ, CUN (when, whenever),—NAMAN (again),—LIUAT (again),—PA (yet),—NA (already),—AGSOB (frequently),—DANAY (sometimes),—NGÁHAO (then). ADVERBS OF DEGREE CAPIN, LABIS, LAPÁS (more),—ORÓG (most),—URAÚRA (excessively),—TUMAN (a little scarcely). ABVERBS OF MANNER AMO, ASYA (so, thus),—ONAN-O (how),—MAN (also),—COLAÓNG, COLASÓT, COLANTOY (for example, for instance). ADVERBS OF DOUBT ADÂ, MAHAMOC, MASAGNI, MAHARANI, CADUÁS TING̃ALI, BANG̃IN, SABALI (probably, perhaps),—BAGÁ (as). ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION OO (yes),—MANGUD (indeed),—CAIYA, UGA, CAY UGÂ, GUI-HÁPON (of course). ADVERBS OF NEGATION DIRI (no),—UARAY (no, past),—AYAO (no, future). ADVERBS OF CAUSE CAY (because),—TUNG̃ÚD (because). OBSERVATIONS 1. Many adjectives and phrases are employed as adverbs, as igbao (above) niyán ng̃a adlao (to-day) damò (much) etc. 2. Some of the adverbs are frequently contracted, as those composed of “bisan” which is contracted into “bis.” Examples: bisan diín contracted bis diín guihapon ,, guiháp. 3. The adverbs have diminutive, comparative and superlative. As from harani, haraníay, haroharaní, guihaharanií; etc. PREPOSITIONS HA (to, from, over, under),—TIPA (against, towards),—TUNG̃UD (for),—PATI, UPOD (with),—GAUÁS (without),—CAN (of, to),—TICANG, GUICAN (from, since),—TUBTUB (up to, till, until),—TALIUAN (after),—LÁBUT (except). CONJUNCTIONS The conjunctions are of the following classes: COPULATIVE UG, NG̃AN (and),—MAN (also),—NG̃A (that). DISJUNCTIVE O, CUN, [102] BA (or). ADVERSATIVE CUNDÌ (but),—SABALI, UGARING (but, though), CUN, NGANÌ (if),—BISAN (even, though),—BACAY (as),—CUNTÀ (which bears the idea of past or future desire: it may frequently be translated in English with the phrase: “if possible”). CONDITIONAL CUN NG̃ANÌ, ABI, [103] UGARING (if). CAUSAL CAY, TUNGUD, BACAY, SANGLIT, CAY (inasmuch, because). FINAL BASI (in order to),—BANGIN (lest). CONTINUATIVE TACAY (then),—BUSA (therefore),—TARA (then). INTERJECTIONS Admiration: ¡a!, ¡ay!, ¡báá!, ¡abaá!, ¡baadao!, ¡abaadao! ¡pastilan!, ¡pauican!, ¡pauísac!, ¡palipac!, ipalísac!, ¡pauiday!, ¡aguimpauican!, ¡aguimpastilan!, ¡aguimpauisac!, ¡aguimpali, pac!, ¡aguimpalisac!, ¡aguimpauiday!, ¡pascalan!, ¡bongansiso!, !odoy!, ¡alágad!, ¡alagad dao!, ¡an ac pa!, ¡ito ngahao!, etc. Pain and sorrow: ¡ay!, ¡ayhay!, ¡aguí!, ¡aroy!, ¡óhoy!, ¡pastilan!, etc. Attention: ¡óho!, ¡ohondá!, ¡tabí!, ¡oy!, ¡acay! ¡hacay!, ¡solibangco!, etc. Insistence: ¡gad!, ¡daó!, ¡uga!, ¡lugá!, ¡ugaring!, ¡lugaring!, ¡caiyá!, ¡pudó!, ¡haromámay!, etc. Reprobation: ¡diri!, ¡uaráy!, ¡ayao!, ¡hulát!, ¡bodó!, ¡buró!, etc. Surprise: ¡ay!, ¡an!, ¡alágad!, ¡ús!, ¡balitao!, ¡bayá!, etc. [104] Pity: ¡cairó!, ¡in tauo!, ¡pastilán!, ¡odóg!, ¡baadao!, ¡aguí!, etc. Desire: ¡cunta!, ¡upayda!, ¡unta!, ¡mangad pa!, ¡ihinaotpa!, ¡tubangan pa la!, etc. Joy: ¡ay!, ¡ahay!, ¡upayda!, ¡salamat!, ¡ta!, etc. Aversion: ¡á!, ¡aguí!, ¡ambot!, ¡sabá!, etc. Invitation: ¡cadí!, ¡taná!, ¡halá!, etc. Self-correction: ¡au!, ¡ay!, ¡sapayán! Suspension: cuan.... inín.... ¡hulat!, ¡niyan!, etc. Despair: ¡sahó!, etc. Gratitude: ¡salamat!, ¡Dyos mag báyad!, ¡Dyos mag sugá!, etc. SYNTAX SUBJECTIVE RELATION The subject of a verb may be either a noun or its equivalent, namely a pronoun, a verb in the infinitive mood, or an entire phrase. As An Dyos macagagáhum (God is omnipotent) Acó nagsusurát (I write) An paguaon maopay (The meal is good; literally: the eating is good) An guinquiquinauanglan ta ámo an (what we need is union). pag-orosa PREDICATIVE RELATION The verb agree with its subject in person and number. As panurát quitá (let us write) magsurát hiyá (let him or her write) ATTRIBUTIVE RELATION The nouns and their equivalents may be modified by substantives, adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, possessive pronouns, and participles. Except in cases of possessive pronouns, relative ng̃a is placed between the noun or its equivalents, and the modifying word. As batá ng̃a sorogóon (the young servant; literally: the boy servant) an sangcay ng̃a macpay (the good friend) iní ng̃a baláy (this house) an acon amáy (my father) hinigugma nga iróy (loved mother) NOTE.—When the pronoun “adton” and its inflections are equivalent to “deceased”, “late”, the particle ng̃a is not employed. As adton Pedro (the late Peter) The article also modifies the noun and its equivalents, in that it limits them. The articles always precede the word or words to which they refer. As is seen before (page 9) the personal article is always employed before the proper nouns, except in the vocative case. As an lang̃it (the heaven, or the sky) hi Eudong (Peter) The definite article is sometimes used before proper nouns, and frequently before the demonstrative and possessive pronouns. The indefinite article is sometimes employed before the possessive pronouns. The personal article is sometimes used before the personal pronouns, except the third person. As an Dyos (God) an iní ng̃a batà (this boy) an amon búngto (our town) macanhi in acon sangcay (a friend of mine will come) hi camó ng̃an hi acó (you and I) COMPLEMENTARY RELATION The object of the verb is always in the objective case determined by the corresponding article, or by a preposition. As hi Pedro nagbabasa han surat (Peter reads the letter) hirá nang̃atúrog ha sacayán (they sleep on the boat) hi Tomás naruruyag hin pagcanhi (Thomas wishes to come; literally: Thomas wishes a coming) mácadto acó ha Abúyog (I shall go to Abuyog). The object of the verb to be is in the nominative case. As an imo bahín, amo iní (your part is this) an táuo mamarátyon (the man is mortal) ADVERBIAL RELATION The adverbs and the adverbial phrases modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. As “dánay” acó cumádto (I go there sometimes) nabasa ng̃ani acó, nábasa “man” hiyá (If I read, he reads also). The adverbs are generally placed next to the word that they modify, some before the said word as “agsob” (frequently), “dánay” (sometimes), “masócot” (often), “macatalagsa” (seldom), etc., and other after the said word as “pa” (yet), “na” (already), “man” (also), “gud” (precisely), etc., and some before or after the said word as “lugúd” (on the contrary), etc. REPRESENTATIVE RELATION The important Bisayan word that expresses representative relations is the relative pronoun nga, which is invariable. an batá nga tinmauag ha acon (the boy who called me) an cabatáan ng̃a tinmawag ha acon (the boys who called me) As to cases, we have seen (page 52) that this relative nga never refers to the object of the verb. The sentences in the English and other languages, where the corresponding relative pronoun relates to the object of the verb and where consequently the said relative is in the objective case, are expressed in Bisayan in passive voice which is the most used in this tongue. [105] Thus, if we wish to say the boy whom I called we should say an bata ng̃a tinauag co which literally is: the boy who was called by me. The personal, demonstrative and possessive pronouns agree in person and number with their antecedents or the word or words that they represent. There is no agreement in gender because the pronouns have no gender. CONNECTIVE RELATIONS The prepositions join the nouns, their equivalents, or the pronouns to some other word. They place in the objective case the word that depends on them. The most important preposition in, Bisayan is ha, which is equivalent to nearly all of the prepositions of other languages. Examples: He saw me— hiyá quinmitá ha acon He wrote to me— hiyá nagsurát ha acon I come to Tacloban— nacanhi acó ha Tacloban I come from Palo— ticang acó ha Palô I pass by your house— linmabáy acó ha iyo baláy He is in the room— aadto niyá ha solód etc. ABSOLUTE AND INDEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS Absolute and independent constructions take place in Bisayan with vocatives, and interjections. Vocatives, as Pedro, ng̃a niya, cadí dao (Peter, he said, come, please) Interjection, as Pastilan, caloóyi gad acó (oh!, have pity of me) Some independent phrases are connected with the rest of the thought by the adverb man, as naabot camí, natutunod man (when we arrived, the sun set; an adlao literally: we arrived, the sun also set). SYNTAX OF VERBS THE INFINITIVE. The present has the construction of the noun, as an pag-arám hin maopay ámo an (to learn well is the duty of a catungdánan han batà boy). The gerund expresses the idea of past when preceded by the particle han, contraction of the preposition ha and the article an, as han pagsírang han adlao, nagmamatá (when the sun raised, I was na acó already awake). The past participle has the construction of an adjective, as binilangò ng̃a táuo (prisoner; literally: an imprisoned man) INDICATIVE. Besides its ordinary use, its present is frequently employed with the particle cuntà, to express the idea of an interrupted or intended action. As cun uaráy ca cánhi, nalacát cunta (If you had not come, I would have acó gone) SUBJUNCTIVE. It being used in a subordinate propositions, it is always constructed with the conjunctions ng̃a (thato), cun, ng̃anì (if), cuntà (if possible). Ng̃a and cun always precede the verb; ng̃anì and cunta when used for the subjunctive, is always placed after the verb. As caruyag co ng̃a cumanhi ca buas (I wish you to come to-morrow; literally: I wish that you may come to-morrow). [106] cun lumabay hi Juan, tanága. (If John passes by, call him) lumabáy ng̃anì hi Juan taúaga. lumabáy cuntà hi Juan (God grant that John passes). NOTE.—The subjunctive form is frequently constructed with the modal adverbs and adjectives and then such combinations have the construction of an adjective. As táuo ng̃a maopay sumurat (a good writer: literally; a man who writes well) macosóg sumáog ng̃a carabao (a strong dragger carabao) etc. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS The adjectives and verbs are always preferably employed, whenever possible, at the beginning of a phrase, clause, or sentence. Examples: maópay ng̃a táuo (good man) nagsusurát acó (I write) etc. VIOLATIONS OF GOOD USE BARBARISMS The most frequent violation of good use of the Bisayan tongue is the Barbarism. It is committed by using foreign words, and foreign constructions. FOREIGN WORDS Many foreign words have been and are being introduced in the Bisayan conversations and writings. Must of such words are being adopted, not because they are necessary, but simply thru affectation and love of innovation, thus attempting against the purity of Bisayan. Some of the words introduced however are necessary as they have no corresponding word in Bisayan. FOREIGN WORDS UNNECESSARILY USED IN BISAYAN SPANISH WORDS Abierto, abre (open) for Binucsan, inucáb, bucás ucáb. Adorno (adornment) ,, Dayan, rayandayan Agua (used to mean perfume) ,, Talamhot Aguanta (wait suffer) ,, Ílob, hulát Alisto (from listo) ,, Andam Amigo (friend) ,, Sángcay Apique (close) ,, Sóoc Apura, apurado (hurry) ,, Dagmit, cadagmitan Atrever, atrevido (bold) ,, Paggahúm, gamhánan Aver (for “give me”) ,, Icadí Aver pa (God grant) ,, Mangad pa Bajado, Bajar (low) ,, Habobó, obós Bancó (bench) ,, Pongcóan, lincoran, pápag Bando (edict) ,, Pahamatngon Batido (for “experienced”) ,, Lasgud, hiara Bote (for boat) ,, Sacayan Cada usá (each one) ,, Tágsa Calabozo (jail) ,, Bilangóan Calculo (calculus) ,, Igoigo Calle (street) ,, Dalan Campana (bell) ,, Linganay Canta (sing) ,, Laygay, laylay Cantodes (from “cantores”) ,, Paralaygay Carcel (jail) ,, Bi1angóan Cargo (for “debt”) ,, Útang Carne (flesh meat) ,, Unód Capaz (able) ,, Sadang, angay, tacús Castigo (punishment) ,, Siroc Cocina (kitchen) ,, Lotoán Coger ,, Pagdacóp pacasacób Colá (from “colar”) ,, Bacá Color (color) ,, Tina, samay, culay Comósta (from “como está” how are you) ,, Matiónan-o ca Común (common) ,, Casahirác Convida (invite) ,, Áabiabi, sabi Contra (against) ,, Tipa, patoe, caauay Cortina (curtain) ,, Biráy Cuarta (money) ,, Salapí Cuarto (room) ,, Solód Cuerdas (strings) ,, Dolós Cuello (collar) ,, Balióg Cuenta (account) ,, Iháp, ísip De balde (unusefully) ,, Cáuaug De buenas (fortunate) ,, Paláran Decir (for “ask”) ,, Siring hingyap Defecto (defect) ,, Casaquihán, carát’an De malas (unfortunate) ,, Uaráy palad Derecho (right) ,, Tádong, dáyon, catadung̃an Descanso (rest) ,, Pahúuay Despedida (farewell) ,, Panamilit Dibujo (drawing) ,, Badlis, Baguis Diferencia (difference) ,, Guincalainan, guicaíbban Dilatar (for delay) ,, Pag-uláng, pagpahalawig Disgusto (unlikeness) ,, Cangalas Dispensa (excuse) ,, Pasaylo, paguará Diversion (amusement) ,, Caliáuan, liáoliáo Dulce (sweet candy) ,, Matam’is Empezar (to commence) ,, Pagticáng Entra (for “to make love”) ,, Pangasáua Entremés (joke) ,, Tíao Escuela (school) ,, Liborán Espejo (glass) ,, Salamíng Esquina (corner) ,, Casóngnan Estampa (image) ,, Ladáuan Fino (fine) ,, Gamay, pilí Firme (for always) ,, Agsub, ónob Fuerza (strength) ,, Cusóg Fuerte (strong) ,, Macusóg, mabácod Fusil (gun) ,, Lutbang Ganancia (gain) ,, Polós, tubo Gracia (grace, favor) ,, Parábul Gratis (used for “payment”) ,, Himúdlay Gusto (wish) ,, Caruyag Hasta (until) ,, Tubtub, ngadá Hechura (shape) ,, Daguay Interes (interest) ,, Guinsisiring, guinlalánat Jardin (garden) ,, Tanáman La mesa (table) ,, Dulang Latigo (whip) ,, Latós Lavá (from “lavar”, to wash) ,, Búnac Lavandero, a (launderer, laundress) ,, Magburunác Licencia, pag (to take leave) ,, Sárit, panamilit Limós (from “limosna”, alms) ,, Calóoy, hatag Limpio (clean) ,, Mahínis Lóa (praise) ,, Dáyao Lugar (for “near” or “almost”) ,, Dapit, ma Macetas (flower-pot) ,, Tinanóm, taranman Maestro (teacher) ,, Magtorótdo Manteca (butter) ,, Pinahagas Mantel (tablecloth) ,, Basnig ha dulang Mantilla (mantilla) ,, Taóng Masiado (from “demasiado”, too) ,, Uraura Masque (from “por más que”, although) ,, Bisan Medio (half) ,, Catunga, bagá Mismo (self-same) ,, Ngábao, gud Muchacho (for servant) ,, Surogóon Número (number) ,, Iháp O bien (or) ,, O cun, ó, lugúd Oración (prayer) ,, Pangadye, paugamuyo Orden (order) ,, Sugo Pabyon (from “pabellón”) ,, Biráy Paciencia (patience) ,, Pag-ilub Pago (for “debt”) ,, Utang Palati (from “palatico”, from “práctico”) ,, Mag-oróna Paño (cloth) ,, Panapton, pudóng Pañolito (handkerchief) ,, Modongpódong Para (for, halt) ,, Basi, ngada, hulat, ocóy, toróoc Parecer (opinion) ,, Sagbang Parejo (equal) ,, Sáma, sandag Paseada (from “paseo”) ,, Lacatlácat Peligro (danger) ,, Cataragman Pensar (for talent) ,, Talíno Perdona (from “perdonar”) ,, Pasaylo Pero (but) ,, Cundi Pertina (for “pretina”, waistband) ,, Háuac Pierde (from “perder” to lose) ,, Lupig, nara Pintar (to paint) ,, Dum-it, díhog Pintura (paint) ,, Idirihóg Plato (plate) ,, Pingan Platito (a little dish) ,, Lampay Pliegues (plaits) ,, Lopi Pobre (poor) ,, Cablas Polvo (powder) ,, Bócboc Posta (from “apuesta” bet) ,, Butáng Precio (price) ,, Pulít Preparar (to prepare) ,, Pag-andam, pagtíma Preso (prisoner) ,, Binilangá. Probar (to taste) ,, Tilao, sari Propecto (from “perfecto,” perfect) ,, Guinóod Prueba (proof, evidence) ,, Paacamatóod Principal (chief, capital) ,, Labáo, pohonan Provecho (profit) ,, Polós Puerta (door) ,, Ganghaán Pulido (neat) ,, Hag-id, mahamis Puro (pure) ,, Putli, lonlon, sandag, sáhid Queja (complaint) ,, Sumbong Querido (dear) ,, Hinigugma, pinalanga Que ver (for “to do”) ,, Láhot Quinolá (from colar) ,, Bináchan Rabenque (from “rebenque”, whipe) ,, Latob, latos Recibi (from “recibir”) ,, Carauat Reclamo (claim) ,, Paglánat Redondo (round) ,, Lipóron, malídong Regalo (present) ,, Higugma, hatag, bucad Regular (regular) ,, Igó, socol Relo, relos (from “reloj” watch, clock) ,, Orasán [107] Remo (oar) ,, Gaód Renuncio (from “renunciar”, to renounce) ,, Pagdiri, pagdiuara Reventa (from “reventar” to explode) ,, Pagbotó Rico (rich) ,, Mangáran Rugal (from “lugar”, spot) ,, Caraanan, tuna, umá Saco (sack) ,, Sopót Sadá (from “cierra”, close) ,, Locób Sala (hall) ,, Ruáng Saya (skirt) ,, Tampí, Talapí Seguro (for “probably”) ,, Mahámoe, angay la Señor (Sir, Mister) ,, Guinoo Sirve (from “servir” to serve) ,, Pagmangno pag-ágad Suerte (for “talk”) ,, Himangrao Sustento (maintenance) ,, Pagbubi, iburuhi, cabuhian Tabla (board) ,, Bugha Tachar (for “contempt”) ,, Yúbit, támay Taza (cup) ,, Yahóng Tiempo (time) ,, Adlao, túig Tienda (merchandise, store) ,, Baligya, baligyáan Tieso (stiff) ,, Dángag, tadóng Tocar (to play) ,, Pagtonóg Tocador (for glass) ,, Salamíng Tonto (fool) ,, Lórong, palinqui, pádlas Trabajo (work) ,, Buhat Tranea (cross-bar) ,, Síol, Balabág Tumba (to tumble) ,, Púcan Vacio (empty) ,, Lungág Ventana (window) ,, Tambóan Verde (green) ,, Saguindáhon Vicio (vice) ,, Casaquihán Virtud (for “power”) ,, Gahúm Zurce (for “zurcir” to darn) ,, Pagtábing, And many others. CHINESE [108] WORDS Bochang (for sow) for Cablas Buísit (unfortunate) ,, Uaray pálad Camsya (for “thank”) ,, Salámat Gonggong (foolish) ,, Uaray salabótan Lamloc (dear, fat) ,, Matamboc Laotuy (old) ,, Lagás, gurang Syâ (for eat) ,, Cáon Sinqui (new) ,, Bag-o Tampuâ (excess, present) ,, Táuad, labis Uchang (rich) ,, Mangáran Uísit (fortunate) ,, Paláran. and some others. ENGLISH WORDS Haló (halloo) for Ohó Miting (“meeting”) ,, Catirócan Háyc (“hike”) ,, Paglacát, sódoy Moning (for “money”) ,, Salapí Sausau (chow-chow) ,, Pagcáon, caraonón And others. NOTE.—At present, among the students it is frequent to hear “¿háin an ac dyografi (geography), an ac arismitic (arithmetic)?” “¿aada ca ha fif (fifth) greyd (grade)?” “maaram na acó mag espeling (spelling)”—Why do they not talk in English? OBSERVATION. There are some Tagalog words and constructions used in Bisayan; but we do not consider their use as a barbarism, because Tagalog and Bisayan are both dialects of a common tongue, and because such use may help the formation of a possible Filipino language. FOREIGN CONSTRUCTIONS Among others, the following is a barbarism in the construction: “maoroopay iní QUE hitón”, (this is better than that). The use of the QUE (which is Spanish meaning “than”) is entirely Spanish and is not necessary in Bisayan, as the mentioned sentence is expressed simply and with the same strength and more purity and correctness: “maooropáy iní hitón”. FOREIGN WORDS NECESSARILY ADOPTED IN BISAYAN But there are many words now in use in Bisayan the adoption of which enriches rather then destroys the language. We refer to those words that have been necessarily imported from other languages to express ideas not represented by any word, or whose corresponding words are lost in Bisayan. We do not consider their use as a barbarism, as it is not considered us such in English, Spanish, French and other European languages the adoption of Greek and Latin words. We not only do not criticize such adoption in the Filipino dialects but rather desire and encourage it, because it will undoubtedly enable our dialects to be used in all kinds of scientific and artistic expressions. Among the foreign words already adopted, the following may be counted: Dyos (from the Spanish Dios). It is true that we have the Tagálog Bathala which refers to the omnipotency, and the Bisayan Laón which refers to the eternity. But in view of the fact that the word Dyos derived from the Latin Deus, from the Greek Zeus which means Divinite, Supreme Being, has been so much used in Bisayan, and it represent another phase of the attributes of God, we think that the said word DYOS ought to be adopted in Bisayan, adapting its form to the inflections of our dialect. Oras (from the Spanish hora “hour”).—We have to adopt this word, as there is no corresponding expression known in Bisayan. By its adoption we have a way to avoid the use of reloj, with the derivative orasan already used. Bapor (from the Spanish “vapor” steamboat). It has no corresponding in Bisayan. We have sacayán (boat), but it does not include the idea of the “steam.” Papel (from the Spanish “papel”).—It has no corresponding in Bisayan. The Spanish names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year, which must be written in Bisayan form, as: LUNES, MARTES, MYERKOLES, HWEBES, BYERNES, SABADO, DOMINGO, ENERO, PEBRERO, MARSO, ABRIL, MAYO, JUNYO, HULYO, AGOSTO, SEPTYEMBRE, OKTUBRE, NOBYEMBRE, DISYEMBRE. Arorú (from the English “arrow-root”). A plant. And many others. APPENDIX NOTES ON BISAYAN RHETORIC AND POETICS FIGURES OF SPEECH Simile. This figure is one of the most used in Bisayan, even in ordinary conversations. Examples: 1. Bagá an násirong ng̃a dila. Applied to a person or thing intended to be kept out of the rain, but which becomes wet, like the tongue (dila) which is always wet in the mouth. 2. Canogon pa dao la—san imo catindog maópay si báyhon—maráot an bántog igpapananglit co—bayábas ng̃a hinóg, maópay an panit—olóron an onód (A popular song,) Where the resemblance is between “maopay si bayhon” and “maopay an panit”, and also between “maráot an bantog” and “olóron an onód”. Metaphor. It is also used, especially in poetry. Example: 1. Cáhoy ca ng̃a linauáan sa búquid nanauantáuan cun canan Dyos ca pagbut-an matopóng sa ulasiman. (A popular song) Applied to one who is in a high position in life, like “cahoy ng̃a linauáan”, the “lauáan” tree being one of the tallest trees. Allegory. It is also found in Bisayan. Example: Ugá ng̃a cáhoy si láuas, patáy na, layâ si dáhon nanaringsing sin casáquit namúng̃a sin camatáyon (A popular song) Here the life or body (láuas) is called a dry tree (ugá ng̃a cáhoy), already dead (patáy na), whose leaves are withered (laya si dahon), and which sprouted sorrow (nanaringsing sin casáquit), and gave as fruit, the death (namúng̃a sin camatáyon). Personification. One of the most frequent cases of personification in Bisayan is that consisting in applying to things and objects the personal article si. Example: Nagtitinang̃is si tucmo cay tiarábut an bagyo. (A popular song) Where the turtle-dove, (tucmo) is personifed by si. The expression would lose much of its charm if the article an is employed instead of si. Antithesis. We have this figure in Bisayan. Example: Canógon pa dao la—san imo catindog maópay si bayhon—maráot an bantog, etc. Where “maopay” (good) and “maraot” (bad), “bayhon” (face) and “bántog” (fame) are contrasted. Epigram. This figure, in its modern meaning, is used in Bisayan. Example: Gumhúlat pa an naghínay. an nagdagmit, uaráy. Which literally means: he who went slow was awaited for; he who hastened was not waited for. Its point is equivalent to that of the English “slow, but sure.” “Guinhulat” (was awaited for) “uaráy” (was not), “naghínay” (went slow) and “nagdágmit” (hastened) are contrasted. Metonymy. It is also found in Bisayan. Example: An patay palang̃it, an buhi pacauít. Literally: let the dead go to heaven; let the living go to the “cauít” (a bamboo where the tubâ wine is ordinarily placed). The figure consists in this word “cauít,” container, for “tuba wine,” the thing contained. Synecdoche. Example: Pag árog hin damò nga bugás cay damo camí ng̃a babà. Literally it means: “Prepare much rice because we are many mouths.” Here the mouths (baba) a part, is used for person, the whole. Apostrophe. We have it also in Bisayan. Example: Ohoy mg̃a lang̃it—mga cahatas’an. tabang̃i, buligui—adin may pinas’an an iní nga pálad—con diri mabáui nouontan dao adá—sinin quinabuhi (A popular song) Literally: Heavens, altitudes, protect, help this who suffers something; if this fate is not averted, it will undoubtedly affect the life. Exclamation. Example: ¡Pastilán bidíday,—bididay ca man la ng̃a nacacalucmay—sinin hunahuna! ... ¡ayáo pag saquita!—¡ayáo pagbidóa, cay mag titinangis—canugon san luha! ... (A popular song) Interrogation. Example: Mg̃a langit, mg̃a langit; ¿háin dao dapit an sáquit? ... sa calibutan uaráy man: sabali sa panomdoman. (A popular song) Hyperbole. It is frequent in Bisayan. Examples: 1. Macapánas hin buquid. (Man able to level a mountain) 2. Macasagpo bin bahá. (Man able to suspend a flood) 2. Cun totóo, intoy—ng̃a imo tinguha pag biling la anay—sílot ng̃a may bóa. (A popular song) Literally: If your love is true, look for a “silot” (a young fruit of cocoanut) which has “bua” (the bulb of the old cocoanut fruit when it is old enough to be used as a seed). Climax Example: ¡ ............ nanaringsing sin masáquit, namúnga sin camatáyon. Irony. Example: ¡Camaopay mo! uaray ca gud pag tuman han imo pólong̃. Literally: How good are you! you did not keep your word. Asyndeton. Example: Ohoy mg̃a lang̃it—mg̃a cahatas’an tabang̃i, buligui, inín may pinas’an, etc. (A popular song) Repetition. Examples: 1. Dirì co cay yubit—diri co cay dáyao pamahonpáhon mo—baga may parayao; etc. (A popular song) 2. Pastilán, bididay—bididay ca man la ng̃a nacacalúcmay—sinín hunahuña, etc. (A popular song) Concatenation. Example: Pastilán ca curi—cacuri capinan capin ca mabide—san bido sa dughan, dughan co pagílob—ilob calauasan, láuas co naponò—pono casaquitan. (A polular song). PROSE Of the three universal important forms in prose, i.e., description, narration, and exposition nothing in general needs be observed. LETTERS At present, one of the forms most generally employed in Bisayan prose is that belonging to the class of narration, the letter. Nothing special needs be observed about letters, at present times, apart from their external forms and the tendency to innovation prominently shown in them, more than anywhere else, by frequent barbarisms. As to the external forms of the Bisayan letters, it is to be observed that a routinary introduction is almost universally followed. We refer to the ordinary introduction consisting in the following ideas and order: “This letter has no other purpose” 2) “but to ask how you are” 3) “because as to me” 4) “I am in a good health”. And after such an invariable introduction, the writer goes on in a paragraph apart; “And I shall add that”, etc. Example: Uaráy láin ng̃a tuyó hiní ng̃a acon surat cúndi an damo ng̃a mg̃a pang̃omósta co ha imo, cay cun acó in ipaquiána, calooy sa Dyos maópay. Ng̃an isonouod co liuát, etc. This is the introduction generally adopted. We do not hesitate to state that more than fifty per cent of the letters written in our Bisayan commence with these or equivalent ideas and in the same order. As to the barbarisms, they are employed thruout the entire letter. On the heading it is usually written: Tacloban, á 2 de Octubre de 1908. instead of: Tacloban, ica 2 han Octubre han 1908. On the introduction it ordinarily appears Sr. D ........................................ or Sra. D.a ........................................ Mi estimado amigo: or Muy estimada Señora: The body of the letter is usually as follows: Uaray lain ng̃a objeto hini ng̃a acon surat, sino an damo ng̃a mg̃a pangomosta ha iyo ngatanán, cay cun camí in iyo ipaquiána, calooy sa Dyos, uaray ano man ng̃a novedad. Y de consiguiente, tatay, isusunod co liuat; cun uaray mo inconveniente, gusto co cunta comadá pag vacacion; pero como guinadvertir mo man aco han nacadi ca ng̃a mag procurar acó hin pag obtener anay han titulo, por eso amo iní ng̃a dirí aco na atrever pag guican mientras dirí paca aco macacarauát han imo contestation ng̃a pag hatag hin permiso, bisan cun sobra y basta gud an acon mg̃a deseos pag visita ha iyo. etc. POETIC FORMS Of the three main classes of poetry, epic, lyric and dramatic, the lyric is the only one preserved in Bisayan in the form of popular songs. The dramatic form is found at present mainly in the translations of Tagalog and Spanish dramas, usually employed as plays on the Patron’s days in the towns. VERSIFICATION Rhythm and rhyme are observed in Bisayan poems. The rhyme is not so perfect as that of the Spanish verses. Consonant words or with similar sounding endings are employed in Bisayan. Kinds of meter. There are two kinds of meter most used in Bisayan poetry: verses of six syllables, verses of eight syllables, and verses of twelve syllables divided in two fragments of six syllables each. Examples: Verses of six syllables: ¿Háin ca na, punay?... cadí na panambo, tambo madalíay, liaua si casbo; basi humalayhay inín saquit, bido nga asay tiónay san casingcasing co. Verses of eight sy11ab1es: Acó iní sugadsugad san bánua nga tarotánglad, bisan cun diín italad mabubuhi cun may palad, Verses of twelve syllables: Togon co sa imo,—mahal nga inógay di ca gud padará—san damo nga sangcay; an paglacát nime—gabay magmahinay, nga diri hatócso,—lumiscad san látay. Note.—The verses of twelve syllables are really verses of six, the odd verses not being rhymed. Combinations. As seen in the preceding examples the combinations are the following: The verses of six syllables are grouped in four verses, the even verses being rhymed. The verses of eight syllables are grouped also in four verses all rhymed. The verses of twelve syllables are also grouped in four rhymed verses. COLLECTION OF SOME BISAYAN SONGS NOTE—In transcribing the following songs, we shall use, the orthography proposed in the note of the first page of this book using only three vowels: a, i, o. MORAL POETRY Si nanay, si tatay di ko babayuán kay damò ng̃a dogô an akon naotag̃ kun pag-ilsipon an siyam ka botan. g̃a pag-inókoy ko sa kan nanay riyán. Togon ko sa imo, mahal g̃a inógay: di ka god padará san damò g̃a sangkay; an paglakat nímo gabáy mag mahinay, g̃a dirí katokao, lomiskad san látay. Kamakaroroyag sa matá pagkit’on sinin mag-asawa g̃a waray sin limbog, kon daw naabot na ira kamatayon náboká an lang̃it bási nira sadlon. Ayaw gani kahihilig ayaw karirikandikan, kay di man bagyo an toig, di man kikilá an bolan. PHILOSOPHIC POETRY Mg̃a bitoón sa lag̃it may mapawà, may mag̃itg̃it, con sa tawo igpanag̃lit, may malípay, may masákit. Kahoy ka g̃a linawaán sa bokid nanawantawan, kon kanan Dyos ka pagbot’an matopóg̃ sa olasiman. Di ko ginkakasorok’an an salapí, an bolawan; say ko ginkikinahag̃lan maopay g̃a ginawian. Sogad gud akó san gamót g̃a nailarom sa kotkot, kon kanan Dyos pagboót malábaw akó san ódlot Diri ba ako pagsirig̃. indayon, paghang̃narig̃, kay bag̃in kitá kapadg̃an, harayó an borogkátan. Guin holát pá an naghinay; an nag dagmit, waráy. Waráy hiní balos báyad bas’la an boót longáyad LOVE POETRY An bató bantilis náibas, nákilot sa toró san tóbig sa darodagínot: ¡kasig̃kasig̃ pa ba an diri homómok. sa gógma san tawo kon sa tarinónot. Di ba sadto ánay imo akó sig̃sig̃ sa walá g̃a kamót, todló tamoyig̃kig̃; baman itó niyán di ka na násiplat, ¿anó an solá ko sa imo nabóhat? An sakít sa domdom og sa honahona, makori ilig̃kod, makori íhigda: ¿ihagád sa láng̃it? ¿itamod sa tona?... ¡A baá Dyos ko, máonan’o dao la!... Pastilán kakori, ka kori kapinan kapin kamabido san bido sa dóghan; doghan ko pag-ilob, ilob kasawásan, láwas ko g̃a ponó pone kasakitan. Pastilán, bididay, bididay ka man la ga nakakalokmay sinín honahona: ayáo pag sakita, ayao pag bidóa, kay mag titinangis kanógon san loha. Pastilán ka kori, ka kor ig̃akapin san may pag kasákit sinin kasig̃kasig̃: igpapanag̃lit ko sa osá ga borig̃ bisan parigóson may gihapon bilin. Háin ka na ponay, kadi na panambo, tambo madaliay. liawá si kas’bo. basi homanáyhay inin sakit bido g̃a asáy tiónay sa kasigkasig ko. Abá Tig̃tig̃ abá Tig̃tig̃. ioli an akon sig̃sig̃. opayda kon logarig̃on, kondi kanan taklobauon. Akon iglilibaglibag̃ inin kasákit sa doghan baman ha banig ig matag̃ sakit ga magtitilógag̃. Kadto na, kadto na, kadto na soranga kadto na pag bilig̃ sin ibá g̃a gogma ayaw gad pag hig̃yap sin sogad sa akon asáy tig̃ohán maópay ga láyhon Kon boot ka mang̃asáwa inín barás pag pisia, di ka g̃ani makapisi pag toraw na la ganoli. Kon daw ha kasirig̃anon tobig ka g̃a irinómon diri sa dáhon pahonbon, pahónbon sa doghan nakon Kon bagá kahoy si lawas patay na, laya si dahon nanarig̃sig̃ sin kasákit namóg̃a sin kamatáyon Kap’atán ka tuig an akon paghig̃yap pag-imasisirig̃ sa imo, binórak. Han nákadto ka ha pantaw akon ka gintitinan-aw harápit ako matónaw sa dako g̃a pag kahidlaw Anó iní g̃a nádoróy kamasakit, kamakapoy, an lawas sogád sin káhoy g̃aginhaharoharópoy Bohi pa an bató g̃a pinamonakan didto la katikag̃ an karokayakan Pastilán ka kori san pag-ig̃irikan natag̃is si inday g̃a binabayáan, gabáy daw la habsan inín kalalawdan g̃a diri tomólin inín pagsarakyan Han nakadto ka ha lawdon akon ka gintinan-awon hapit kó ikaw karawton ha barás diri patonbon. Kon nag-iimót ka san imo kamathom san pag kamabaysay san imo pamayhon, bisan la an todló, an bohók, panapton kon asay somirag̃, maopay na nakon, Hiará ako magnawá magsakaysakay sa bará og didto ako hidagsa sa kam g̃awan g̃a tuna Katlóan ka tuig g̃a akon kahidlaw sogád ka sin tobig nakon ikaóhaw Kon baga ako si taro tonáw na sa pag kaálo; maopay si alimag̃o kay may pag kalonolóno Mga lagit, mga lagit, ¿háin daw dapít an sakit?.... sa kalibótan waráy man sabáli sa panomdoman Sin pag kamamig̃aw sinín kakorolpon waráy god nabantad bis osá g̃a dahon bis an mg̃a tamsi sáhid mabidó an ¿say pa ba an tawo, di aipan gihapon?.... Hinógay na intoy, siton pakalipog̃ sin kinarokanhi sinin amon libog̃ opayda kon hiro iton imo bayhon maamog̃ ka daw la sinín bantog namon SUNDRY Adto na si adlaw linmoyó sa bokid, oli na, indayon, kay waray pa tóbig. Hi nonay g̃a kawayánon malobaylobay hag̃anon naglilinakat ha kógon hi hawak royokdoyókon. Itón imo baba g̃a nagyayabora g̃a nagyiyinákan sitón lonlun bowa; kon di ko kahadlok pághirót sin gaba pag-oonloton ko itón imo dila Akó magtotóon diri ko sasabwan mangad na maloto, diri ko sosog̃-an si akó mátimo di ko poporoton mangad na mabosóg, diri ko totolnon. Anó man in akon kon diin ka kadto, di mo la pag dad-on an tubig, kalayo: di mo mam binohi ini g̃a lawas ko tinmobo si inday kosóg san amáy ko. An tansman nimo mandig̃ ginsisinólod san kand g̃ an taranman nakikil g̃ kay gin bobowad san baktin. ¿Ano ba, Dyos ko, an nakakasógad, an isda sa dagat g̃a nagkakalópad?... ¿ano ba, Dyos ko, iní ga nadoróy, inin katamsihan g̃a nagkakalag̃oy?... Kanogon pa daw la san imo katindog maópay si bayhon, maráot an bantog: igpapanag̃lit ko, bayabas g̃a hinóg, maópay an pánit, oloron an onód. Ambot daw ada maorán si dampog nag̃o odtóhan bisan la inin pag̃ánod doróyog tipailáwod Busa, bayái, balitaw, ayáw gad tood kay tíaw iní g̃a akon pagbolaw igpapahaoli g̃ahaw. Hilag̃kag kitá, hilag̃kag sinín palawán g̃a pankag kay bag̃in, idáy, makárag dó loktan sinín alámag. Makadí kamí maoli, maoli g̃a bagá diri, naghihiawil pa g̃ani san ka maopay sangawi An di ko iginpinólog̃ an kabasólan in akon: si kahoy di mag torópog̃ may balíko, may matadog̃ Anó man in akon kon diín ka hanoy di mo la pagdad-on an tobig, an kahoy iní g̃a lawas ko g̃a makalolóoy tinmobo kan tatay, kan nanay g̃a iróy Diri ko kay yóbit, diri ko kay dayaw pamahonpáhon mo bagá may paráyaw; an imo pamálod pagkasadag̃ana, baga nagkokori an akon ginhawa. Ayáw gad hin tamay, ayáw gad hin yóbit kay magsáma man la inín aton pánit; an aton logárig̃ ginkakalainan, kay diri mag-osá inín aton g̃aran. Busa, bayái, bayái, bayái ayáw baliki, bisan dahon sin kamoti mabobohi kami dinhi. Abá Lolay, abá Lolay ligid ligid sinin baybay kon igkita ka sin away dalagan, ayaw papátay Makadí kami maoli sa baláy g̃a sinorambi bisan la mawaráy bóg̃bog̃ maoli kay logarig̃on An di ko iginkinanta [109] an kabasolán onína; si kahoy di magsaráma may baliko, may balísa An akon pagkinantáhon[109] báyad san akon kináon; bisan la akó tog̃boyón g̃a diri oraoráhon. Nag sisirom na daw inín kakorolpon g̃atanán g̃a tamsi sa káhoy na hapon kitá man an tawo ga may isip domdom. máoli sa balay g̃a kalogarig̃on NOTES ON FILIPINO DIALECTOLOGY It is beyond any question that most of the Filipino dialects are derived from a common origin: the Malay tongue. For this reason many Bisayan words are exactly the same in other Filipino dialects, and many others bear some local dialectal differences, thus always showing a common origin. The following lists are short collections of such words. WORDS EXACTLY THE SAME IN BISAYAN AND IN TAGALOG A Ako. [110]—I Agaw.—To snatch Ag̃lit.—A little pot Amihan.—North wind Anák.—son, daughter Anino.—Shadow Apo.—Grandson, grand-daughter Apog.—Lime Asawa.—Wife Asín.—Salt aswag̃.—Witch Atáy.—Liver Away.—Fight B Baboy.—Pig Baga.—Red-hot Bagá.—as, like Baga.—Lung Bagon.—To raise Bantay.—Watch Bantilis.—A kind of rock Basa.—To read Bata.—Child Bató.—Stone Bawi.—To recover Bayabas.—Guava Bayad.—Pay Bayáw.—Brother-in-law Boká.—Open, untied Bokás.—Open Bokó.—Knot Bohók.—Hair Bog̃a.—Fruit K Kabig.—Pull Kahoy.—Tree, timber, wood Kawayan.—Bamboo Kilala.—To know Koha.—Take Kólag̃.—Insufficient Kota.—Wall D Dagat.—Sea Dahon.—Leave Dalí.—Quick Dila.—Tongue Dogó.—Blood I Ibabaw.—Over Ikaw.—Thou, you Init.—Heat Inóm.—Drink H Habagat.—West Hagdan.—Staircase Hayop.— Animal Hiláw.—Unripe Hínay.—Slow Hinog.—Ripe Hógas.—Wash L Labis.—Excess Lakbay.—Go over Lag̃aw.—Fly Lag̃it.—Heaven, sky Lalaki.—Male Laway.—Saliva Likod.—Back Limá.—Five Liwanag.—Clearness Lokso.—Jump Lohá.—Tear Lorâ.—Spit Lotò.—Cooked M Manók.—Chicken Matá.—Eye Matambók.—Fat May.—There is, etc. Maya.—A kind of bird N Nipá.—Nipá Nipis.—Thinness Nosuos.—To rub O Ogát.—Vein, nerve Olo.—Head Oo.—Yes Opa.—Payment Otag.—Debt Owák.—Raven Owáy.—Vine P Pakpak.—Applause with palms Pait.—Bitterness Palad.—Palm of the hand Patay.—Kill Pati.—Also, with Patog̃.—To place over Payog̃.—Umbrella Paypay.—Fan Pili.—A tree so called Pili.—To select Pingan.—Plate Pitó.—Seven Pokpok.—To beat Pola.—Red Posod.—Navel S Sa.—To, at, from, on, etc. Sabaw.—Broth Sakay.—To embark Sakit.—Sickness Sagig̃.—Banana Saló.—Receive Saway.—To correct Sawsaw.—To wash Siko.—Elbow Sig̃ba.—To adore Sili.—Pepper Siyá.—He, she Siyam.—Nine Soka.—To vomit Sog̃ay.—Horn Solog̃.—Forward Sonod.—Follow Sonog.—Fire T Táas.—Height Tabas.—To cut Tadtad.—To prick Tag̃is.—To weep Tahí.—To sew Timog.—South Tiyán.—Belly Tobâ.—A wine Tobig.—Water Tobó.—Sugar cane Tobò.—Profit, to grow Tohod.—Knee Tohog.—To string Tonóg.—Sound Twad.—To face dawnwards W Waló.—Eight WORDS WITH SOME DIALECTAL DIFFERENCES Differences in the vowels i, o. BISAYAN TAGALOG ENGLISH Akon Akin my, mine Amon Amin our Aslom Asim acidity Aton Atin our Atóp Atíp roof Bitóon Bitúin star Bokog Bikig fish-bone, bone Bogás Bigas rice Bog-at Bigat weight Bolad Bilad to sun Bog̃ol Big̃í deaf Kan-on Kanin cooked rice Kaon Kain to eat Katol Katí to itch, itching Dámò Dami amount, much Datóg̃ Datig̃ to arrive Dokót Dikit to adhere, adhered Dolóm Dilim dark Gorót Gilit slice Hábol Habi to weave Harok Halik kiss, to kiss Hatod Hatid to accompany Horám Hiram to borrow Iuomon Inumin potable water Itom Itim black Liog Liig neck Pawod Pawid weaved nipa Salóg Sahig floor Sandig Sandal to lean Takóp Takíp cover Tanom Tanim plantation Taróm Talim edge of a sword, etc. Tindok Tundok a kind of banana Tindog Tindig to stand Tonok Tiník thorn Differences in k, h, l, r, d, t. BISAYAN TAGALOG ENGLISH Adlaw Araw Sun, day Aram Alam Wisdom Badò Barò Chemise Balay Bahay House Balo Bao Widow, widower Balon Baon Provision Barahibo Balahibo Feather, dawn Bari Bali To break Bolan Bwan Moon, month Kagód Káyud To scrath Kalot Kámot To scratch Kamó Kayó You Koló Kukú Nail Dalan Daan Path, road Daraga Dalaga Young girl Digò Ligò To bath Dirì Hindì Not Hadì Harì King Halabà Mahaba Long Halarom Malalim Deep Harayò Malayò Far Higdà Higà To lay down Iróg Ilog̃ Nose Lakát Lakad To walk Lawod Láot Ocean Mahínis Malinis Clean Namok Lamok Mosquito Napolo Sampù Ten Parabol Palaboy Favor, grace Pirit Pilit To force Poro Pulò Island Roag̃ Lwag̃ Broad Salod Sahod To receive Sarapati Kalapati Pigeon Sarowal Salawal Pants Sira Sila They Sirag̃ Silag To appear Sirog̃ Silog̃ Beneath Sodlay Suklay Comb Sorat Sulat Letter Sorok Sulok Corner Talig̃a Taig̃a Ear Tarog̃ Talog̃ A plant Torò Tulò Drop Torog Tulog To sleep Toktok Togtog To sound, to play Differences in the accent, and in the separation of the syllables. BISAYAN TAGALOG ENGLISH Bálik Balík to come back Kohà Kuha to take Gaód Gáod oar Hipág Hípag sister-in-law Laón Láon old, ancient Sábay Sabáy simultaneous Tawá Táwa laugh Kab-it Kabít connected Kam-aw Kamao a dish Kan-on Kanin cooked rice Koan Kwán so and so Gab-i Gabí evening, night Sab-a Sabá a kind of banana Sab-it Sabit to hook Tan-aw Tanaw to look Tig-a Tigás hardness Tul-id Twid straight Transformation from a to o, and viceversa. Alapoop Alapaap cloud, fog Kamót Kamay hand Doha Dalawá two Habobò Mababà low Sokól Sukat measure Toló Tatlo three Onóm Anim six Opat Apat four Otok Utak brain NOTES [1] We write Bisayan, and not Visayan for the reason, among others, that there is no V or sound of V in our dialect, and that there seems to be no necessity for changing in English the B of the original Bisayâ into V. [2] A commitee has been found lately in Manila for this purpose. [3] According to the nature of the Bisayan dialect and according to what some Filipino philologists have written, Rizal among them, referring to the dialects in the Philippines, the letters of the Bisayan language must be the following: a, b, d, e, g, g̃, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u, y, w. As it can be noticed, the letters c, f, j, ñ, q, v, x and z are omitted from the preceding list, and g̃ and w are introduced. The reason for this is as follows: c, in its sound as in city, can be substituted by the letter s; and, in its sound like c in cup, it can be substituted by k. f is never used in Bisayan. j, in its Spanish sound, can be substituted by h, which has an aspirate pronunciation in Bisayan in all cases. In Bisayan, there is no sound like that of the English j; however, in some places on the western and southern coasts of Leyte, the y is pronounced like the English j, as in maayo (pronounced mah-ah-joh) good. The Spanish letter ñ, or a sound like it, can be written in Bisayan more properly with the combination of these two letters ny, as in minyo (pr. mean-yo) married. q is not necessary, since the k can be used in all cases, where q is needed. The phrase quiquilàon co (I shall see it) can be perfectly written kikiláon ko. v is never used in Bisayan. x, in its Spanish sound, can be substituted by ks; and, in its English sounds, it can be substituted by gs or ks, respectively. z, in either its English or its Spanish sound, is never used in Bisayan. The g̃ is for the nasal sound that is very often used in Bisayan, like the ng in song, longing. The g is preferable to the combination ng̃, which would sometimes lead to confusion; because this combination ng in Bisayan, is not pronounced as one letter, in many instances, but each of these letters is pronounced; as, for example, the word bug̃a (fruit), if written bunga, should sound booong-ghah, which means to dart or to be darted. w is needed in all cases of sounds like Spanish dipthongs; but it must be used in Bisayan always as a consonant, never as a vowel. Notwithstanding the preceding considerations, the orthography used in this book is the old one, but simplified to a certain extent, on account of the fact that this alphabet (if it can be properly called an alphabet, it having no f or sound of f) is not yet used, even known, but by very few persons among the Bisayan speaking people. It would be very desirable for the people to adopt the new orthography proposed in this note, because it is evidently more simple and proper for the particular nature of the Bisayan dialect. A study of the method of reducing the number of Bisayan vowels is also to be desired, as it seems that not more than three are needed, to wit: a, e or i, o or u. The nature of the Bisayan tongue argues for such a simplicity. Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera, referring to the ancient Filipino alphabet, says: “The alphabet was composed of seventeen letters, three of which were vowels. A consonant standing alone was always pronounced with an a sound following; by the use of a dot or dash near and above the consonant stem, in much the same fashion as is used in certain systems of shorthand, instead of the sound of the a, the sound of the vowels e or i was produced: when the dot or dash was placed below the consonant stem the vowel sound given was equivalent to o or u.” (See Census of the Philippine Islands: 1903 Volume One, page 327). [4] In most of the towns of the island of Sámar, such separation as well as that by apostrophe is frequently disregarded, this being one of the most noticeable differences between the Sámar and Leyte dialects. [5] See the note on the first page of this book. This is one of the facts that urge the adoption of a more logical alphabet (?) for the Bisayan tongue. [6] Except o and u when used as consonants, their function then being properly that of a w. [7] The author believes that it is better to adopt these contractions than to invent others of Bisayan origin for the reason that they afford signs universally understood, and because every tongue has a tendency to assimilate such universal signs. [8] We do not write “Dios”, because it would be pronounced Di-os.—See “Vowels”, supra. [9] The use of s instead of the h, in these articles, depends upon the place where Bisayan is spoken. In the towns of Burawen, Dúlag and Abúyog, of the island of Leyte, and in some places in Sámar, the h is never used, but the s instead for these articles. Generally, it is considered more solemn to use the s instead of the h, in speeches, letters and poetry. But many times it is considered as a ridiculous affectation, in places where the h is used. It will be noted that, in some instances, the Bisayan people show a tendency to change the aspirate sound of the h, or soft sound of the Spanish j, into s. So in olden times, the name Juan was pronounced Suan; Jueves was pronounced Suebes; and from the Spanish jugar, they made the Bisayan word sugal, which is still in use. [10] See “Contractions”, supra. As it is seen, the m is for ma. This contraction shows exactly the way in which the Bisayan original letters were used. It is simply the ancient way of writing preserved after the adoption of the Spanish letters. [11] This diminutive as well as the preceding does not need to be accented with grave and angular accent, as originally, first, because such accents are onlv used at the ending of the words (see the rule, page 3), and second, because the suspended guttural suund of the last vowel of its primitive is in some way preserved by means of the separation with which the vowels oa are pronounced (see “Vowel”, page 5) [12] But if the primitive is mapulá, the diminutive will be mapulapula, as will be noted later. [13] In some places in Leyte and Samar, this particle is hi, not ha, where it is said hibobò, hilipot, hilabà, hitáas. But, in my opinion, it is simply a result of confounding the particle ma which is more proper for adjectives as it bears the idea of abundance, with the personal article hi with which it is thus intended to personify the abstract ideas of bobò, lipat, labà, táas. [14] It has also the regular form “halabáay”. [15] This is a metathesis of “dacoalay”, by the transposition of the liquid consonant l; and this l in “dacoalay” has been substituted, for phonetical reason, for the y of “dacoayay”, which is the diminutive of “dacoay” not used. [16] It seems that this diminutive is the contraction of “gutiay nya durò”; it is not strictly a diminutve, it is a superlative. [17] Transformed from bobonbòbon. [18] We do not write can-on, because it is a contraction of caran’on, which is also contracted from caraonón. [19] See “Comparative” and “Collective”, infra. [20] The last u is not a vowel properly; it should be the consonant w. See notes on pages 1 and 5 of this book. [21] It also means anxiety for dancing. So from isóg (to enrage), it is said: “daco it ac isogón” (contracted from irisogón), my rage is great. [22] The second syllable of the combined prefix is sometimes doubled to make the sentence more emphatic. [23] Interfix is there used to designate the particle placed within a word. [24] Such is the name of the present capital of the province of Leyte. According to a tradition, this name originated from the fact that before the town was formed, a point of the eastern coast of its present site was known as a place where fishes were taken from the sea by a bamboo instrument, like a cover called taclob. [25] It is the name of one of the most important towns in Leyte, located on the eastern coast of said island. Also according to a tradition, in the southwestern part of the present site of that town, before the town was built, there was a large tall tree, from whose prominent branches the people used to watch (tan-ao) the Moros from Sulu, when invading the coasts of Leyte.—The last o of this tan-ao is properly the consonat w. [26] From lolodhanan from lolohodanan, where the ó is suppressed, and the h and d, transposed, for phonetical reasons. [27] As when we say: “macaoncaón iní ng̃a bayábas” (this guava is inviting). The idea of fondness sometimes takes the same form, as “macaoncaón ini ng̃a sorogóon” (this servant is fond of eating surreptitiously). This form is also used for impersonal verbs, as will be seen later, as: “macaoncáon na” (I have appetite already). [28] I say “is”, because this combination ng̃ is properly one letter in Bisayan, which should be called ng̃a, as anciently. [29] This is also a verbal of sapód (to gather). [30] The particle hi sometimes with the verbs and especially among the derivative nouns conveys the idea of “payment for”, as when from the verbs budlay (to tire one’s self), salacáy, (to embark), and the nouns apóy (grandfather or grandmother), púsod (navel), it is said: himudlay (any thing given as in payment of any work);—hinálacay (payment for passage);—hingapóy (a present given to a grandfather or grandmother upon the the marriage of his or her grand daughter under the consideration of the former’s being the grandfather or grandmother of the latter);—himósod (present given to the midwife for cutting and attending to the navel of a new-born child). [31] We use a hyphen in this word on account of the angular accent of the last o of the first verb. [32] When the brothers or sisters referred to are more than two, then the interfix r is used, as magburugtò. [33] The second u must be the consonant w. [34] This is the modern way of pronouncing this word. The old way consisted in making two syllables out of this word, and according to that pronounciation, it is written Diyos (prouounced Di-yos), not Dyos. [35] See “Hi”, under the heading “Verbal” supra. [36] See note 2 on page 20. [37] So we say dolúo-ha-Sulúg, which means a medicinal plant (duláo) from (ha) Sulu (Sulúg). [38] See “an, on” under the heading of “Verbal”, page 15 supra. [39] From paladan, the d having been solved into r. [40] It is believed that the name of one of the towns of Leyte, called by the Spaniards “Burauen” and, by the natives, “Burauón”, has been originated from burabáron (Contracted and made Burauón), on account of the fact that there are many fountains in that place. There is no reason why the native name “Burauón” used by the natives until the present time should not be employed for all uses, the u of said word being replaced by the w, if the letters proposed in the note of the first page of this book are adopted. [41] This word does not follow the rule. For phonetical reasons, in its formation an h is used and it is made maasinhanon contracted maasinhon instead of maasinánon which is the regular form. [42] The natives, especially the low people pronounce Mericá instead of America; mericano instead of the Spanish “americano” for American. [43] The name Calyarâ (native name of the town of Carigara, Leyte) has been probably originated from Cangara (placed of one called Garâ). A similar explanation might be given for the formation of the names Calbigà and Calbáyog (towns of Sámar). Besides the particle can the pronoun hira was probably used for similar cases. We think that the word Hiraite (Bisayan name of the word Leyte, applied to a town of the island of the same name) is formed by the said pronoun hirá and Ite. probably the name of the ancient owners of that place. [44] Mano and mana are probably a corruption of the Spanish “hermano,” “hermana.” [45] See page 12 et seq. of this book. [46] The word capin sogóng, uraura, in some localities are replaced by the Spanish word duro (hard). So they say “duro ca maopay”, maópay ng̃a duro, or maopay hin duro (very good). It is proper to adopt foreign words when there are not words coresponding in Bisayan, but we do not see why the pure Bisayan words should be forgotten when they are expressive, pure and original. The preposition cundí (but) is suffering the same fate, by the introduction of the Spanish pero. [47] Instead of uraura, the word masiado, a corruption of the Spanish demasiado, is much in use. Read the preceeding note. [48] It must be noted that the accent in the superlative is on the last syllable, masiromstróm, while in the dimunitive (which has exactly the same form, except the accent) the accent is upon the pennit, masiromsírom. The meaning is different in the phrases masiromsírom pa, and masiromsiróm pa; the first means “it is a dark yet”; the second “it is very dark yet”. [49] The Bisayan cardinal show that the original system of Bisayan people in counting was the decimal. So napulo is a compound word from na (made) and pulò (pile, island). Napulo means “one pile made”, wherefrom the decimal system clearly shows. [50] This word cag (and) is used in the island of Panay, but not in Sámar or Leyte where ngan, ug are employed for the said conjunction. In the southern part of Leyte it is said: napala ug osá. [51] A collective noun formed by the prefix ca and the primitive duha whose d is transformed into r, and by the affix an. It means the reunion of two piles. [52] There seems to be no doubt that this word ribo has the same origin as the Tagalog “libo”; but each one has a different meaning: while the Bisayan libo means ten thousand, the Tagalog libo means only one thousand. To express ten thousand, the Tagalogs have the word lacsá. [53] This word may have been derived from lagtuc which means the swelling of a thing due to dampness, humidity, or water. [54] An onomatopoetic word bearing the idea of littleness. [55] An onomatopoetic word meaning a thing that makes noise (caradul). [56] As it will be seen later there are despective verbs, as; of lacat (to walk) laag; of yacán (to talk), yaquimbot. [57] See page 31 of this book. [58] These nouns are originated, in our opinion, from Spanish. See the note on pape 31. supra. [59] We also believe that these nouns are Spanish. [60] See “Collective,” supra. [61] This is the origin of “Borong̃an” a town on the eastern coast of the island of Samar, on account of the fact that during certain epoch of the year, that place is more or less covered with fog. [62] See “Vowels”, page 5 of this book. [63] See “Rule”, page 3 of this book. [64] However, the correct and proper form is the first, Panalaron, a verbal derived from panalad a plural infinitive of the verb pagsálad which means “to sound”. The said suburb of Tacloban, it is believed took this name from the fact that, anciently, the people used to sound (panálad) in such place which was then covered by the sea. [65] Quita means “we”, the listener included; camí means “we”, the listener excluded. [66] Only used after the verb. [67] Hiyá and siyá are the same. See the note 2 on page 7 of this book. The same may be said about hirá and sirá. [68] Contracted from ni (of) and ácon (mine). [69] Contracted from da and ácon. This particle da is used in some places as equivalent to the preposition ha or the contraction han. So in Carigata, Leyte, they say dahani (at old times), instead of hanhaní used in Tacloban and other towns of Leyte. The forms damon, daton, dimo, diyo, diya, dira have the same explanation. [70] Quita is frequently used for “acó”, as when we say tagui quitá hin salapî, (give me money), instead of tagui aco hin salapî. [71] See “Personal pronouns” page 47. [72] See the note 2 on page 7. We use apostrophe and not hyphen, because hin’o, sin’o are contracted from hi ano and si ano. [73] However in this form in which the substantive precedes the adjective the suppression of ng̃a is permissible in poetry. [74] This is another irregularity of the pronoun quita. Here it is equivalent to nimo; but this last form is inadmissible in such phrase, naton being the special pronoun for the same. [75] In Dulag and other places of Leyte, this word is pronounced didínhi. [76] See “Other classes of verbs”, infra. [77] See “Potential Form”, infra. [78] In Basay, Sámar the m is frequently suppressed, the first vowel becoming long on account of said suppression. So they say there: sínurat, ínabot. [79] This form is taken from the subjunctive, as in the Spanish language. [80] In the towns of Dúlag, Burauen, and Abúyog, of the island of Leyte, these forms are always contracted, the first syllable of the verb so formed becoming long on account of the said contraction. Thus it is said in the mentioned places: nágsurat instead of nagsúsurat. [81] See the note on page 65. [82] See the note on page 63. [83] See page 65 et. seq. [84] It is not doubled some places, See note on page 65. [85] See page 64 et seq. [86] It is not doubled some localities. See note on page 65. [87] See page 61. [88] See page 65. [89] See page 68. [90] See page 62 et seq. [91] See page 68. [92] See page 69. [93] The translation made in those conjugations is literal. We try to express in English the exact idea contained in these forms. [94] See note on page 65. [95] See page 70 et seq. [96] See page 71. [97] Page 61 of this book. [98] The future of this form is the same as in the regular Tagalog form, where it is said susulat aco (I shall write), bucas aco susulat (tomorrow I shall write). [99] See page 61. [100] In Dúlag and other places of Leyte, the accent is transposed to the penult. So it is said: dididâ, etc. [101] See the page 10. [102] This conjunction is seldom used, at present, for the disjunctive or. The English or and the Spanish o are difficult to translate into Bisayan with cun. For this reason the Spanish o is frequently employed in Bisayan, as well as in Tagalog for the English or. [103] It also conveys the idea of “Saying”, as in the example: nasiring an catsila, ngalaong: “págame”, abi tapa: “bayari acó”. [104] There is another, viz: susmaryosep or susmarosèp the corrupted Spanish “Jesús, María y José”. [105] The fact that there are three classes of passive voice in Bisayan show the great importance of the said voice in this tongue. Thus if we wish to say “I love you”, it is more expressive to say: hinihigugma co icao (literally: you are loved by me) than to say: nahigugma aco ha imo. [106] In Bisayan, there is no construction similiar to that of the English tongue, consisting in putting the subject in the objective case, and its verb in the infinitive: which is an exact Latin syntax, as he wishes me to come Ille vult me venire Such sentence is expressed in Bisayan with the aid of the conjunction ng̃a, the subject in nominative case, and the verb in subjunctive mood, thus caruyag niya ng̃a acó camánhi. [107] See “Foreign words necessarily adopted in Bisayan”, infra. [108] We do not refer to those Chinese words imported to Philippines with Chinese objects. Such words are to be kept necessarily in Bisayan, because their equivalent vernacular expressions, either are lost, or never existed. [109] Derived from the Spanish “cantar” (to sing) [110] A: We use in these lists the orthography proposed in the first page of this book, as an orthography practically the same is now being much used in Tagalog. But we employ only three vowels: a, i, o. *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 69603 ***